Virtual organizations, as all organizations, need to continually produce and share
knowledge including using knowledge gained from past projects to solve current
projects (Cohen & Sproull 1991). The knowledge is placed in and taken from
organizational memory. Organizational memory is the data, information, and
knowledge from the past that can be used on present problems (Walsh & Ungson
1991). The process for updating and using organizational memory is organizational
learning (Huber 1991). Organizational learning is the naturally occurring process,
where as knowledge management is the proactive and purposeful management of the
organizational learning process. Knowledge management functions of creation,
assimilation, and dissemination are the proactive methods for updating and using
organizational memory. For knowledge creation, the organization must have a subprocess
to connect the planned actions with the results to learn from the project.
Knowledge assimilation is the sub-process to collect the created knowledge and store
and refine the knowledge with past organizational knowledge. This knowledge
assimilation sub-process adds support to best practices and decreases the support for
less effective practices. Knowledge dissemination is the retrieval and distribution of
the knowledge to use on another project. The organizational learning process which
knowledge management supports is described along two dimensions: modes and
timing.
Nonaka (1994) described four modes for organizational learning. Three of the
modes (socialization, externalization, and internalization) emphasize direct human-tohuman
interaction. Socialization is the process for transferring tacit knowledge to tacit
knowledge between individuals and includes culture or shared experiences, mentors,
and on the job training. Externalization is the mode by which an individual shares his
or her tacit knowledge with others by making the knowledge explicit. Internalization
transfers explicit to tacit knoiwlledge through learning by the individual. The fourth
mode, combination, relies on formal electronic communication methods fclr sharing
explicit knowledge between individuals.
Taking a project view of organizational actions, organizational learning takes place at
two time periods: intra- and inter-project. Intra-project learning is the learning
existing team members complete on the tasks within the project. Inter-project learning
is the sharing of the knowledge between projects. The intra-project learning serves as
the foundation for the inter-project learning by providing the experiences to be
assimilated for the end of the project learning.
The intra-project organizational learning process focuses on the tasks within a single
project. The creation of organizational memory during intra-project takes place
during the project planning, execution, and close-oul phases. Knowledge is created in
1) the definition of the project plan and 2) the comparison of the actual results to the
plan. Explanations for both performance variances and non-variances offer
opportunities for learning. Innovative approaches for completing a task should be
documented as well as any major problems encountered and the approaches used to
overcome the problems. Knowledge creation produces a lesson learned (Juran 1988)
which includes the following components: plan (goals, conditions, and steps or
actions); results; and recommendations (what worked and why, and what didn’t work
and why) (Kotnour 1995). Knowledge assimilation occurs through the continuous
capture and storage of the lessons learned. Knowledge dissemination occurs through
the virtual workers sharing amongst themselves whai has been learned on their given
tasks and sharing the gained knowledge for inter-project learning. The intra-learning
focuses on the tasks within a project.
Inter-project learning focuses on taking the knowledge created, assimilatedl, and
disseminated from the intra-project learning and assimilating and applying
appropriately new knowledge ?with past project knovvledge to support knovvledge
dissemination to and creation in other projects. The inter-project knowledge creation
is the drawing of lessons learnled from a single project (i.e., lessons learned for the
project). The knowledge assiimilation is the combiniing of lessons learned aLcross
projects to develop new knowledge. The dissemination function is the sharing of
lessons learned across projects to support intra-project learning for the next project.
The cycle begins anew for each project.
The characteristics of the vintual organization pose possible barriers and
enhancements to the organizational learning modes and timing. We hypothesize that
the socialization, externalization, and internalization modes are most exhiblited by the
high levels of informal comrnrinications exhibited in the physical co-location of
workers in communities of practice (Brown & Dugiiid 1991). Traditional balances
and expressions between these three modes may be modified for sharing knowledge
in the virtual organization because the very nature of the virtual organization relies on
electronic communication; that is, during the project the communities of practice may
be primarily electronic communities. An analogy may be drawn between the dynamic
changes that occurred in the actors when the entertainment industry shifted from
radio to television or silent filims to talking films. Immediately the dynamics clhanged
the qualities needed for success. These three modes may be modified for inter-project
learning because workers within a virtual organization will be consistently changing
from prqiect to project. Therefore, the combination mode of sharing explicit to
explicit knowledge may be a primary source for sharing knowledge within and
between projects Based on the characteristics of the virtual organization and the need
for organizational learning in the virtual organization, we offer the following
hypotheses to base our description of knowledge management tools to support
organizational learning in a virtual organization:
Learning takes place within and between projects,.
Virtual communities of pr-ac tice are dispersed and ever changing.
Virtual organizations, as all organizations, need to continually produce and share
knowledge including using knowledge gained from past projects to solve current
projects (Cohen & Sproull 1991). The knowledge is placed in and taken from
organizational memory. Organizational memory is the data, information, and
knowledge from the past that can be used on present problems (Walsh & Ungson
1991). The process for updating and using organizational memory is organizational
learning (Huber 1991). Organizational learning is the naturally occurring process,
where as knowledge management is the proactive and purposeful management of the
organizational learning process. Knowledge management functions of creation,
assimilation, and dissemination are the proactive methods for updating and using
organizational memory. For knowledge creation, the organization must have a subprocess
to connect the planned actions with the results to learn from the project.
Knowledge assimilation is the sub-process to collect the created knowledge and store
and refine the knowledge with past organizational knowledge. This knowledge
assimilation sub-process adds support to best practices and decreases the support for
less effective practices. Knowledge dissemination is the retrieval and distribution of
the knowledge to use on another project. The organizational learning process which
knowledge management supports is described along two dimensions: modes and
timing.
Nonaka (1994) described four modes for organizational learning. Three of the
modes (socialization, externalization, and internalization) emphasize direct human-tohuman
interaction. Socialization is the process for transferring tacit knowledge to tacit
knowledge between individuals and includes culture or shared experiences, mentors,
and on the job training. Externalization is the mode by which an individual shares his
or her tacit knowledge with others by making the knowledge explicit. Internalization
transfers explicit to tacit knoiwlledge through learning by the individual. The fourth
mode, combination, relies on formal electronic communication methods fclr sharing
explicit knowledge between individuals.
Taking a project view of organizational actions, organizational learning takes place at
two time periods: intra- and inter-project. Intra-project learning is the learning
existing team members complete on the tasks within the project. Inter-project learning
is the sharing of the knowledge between projects. The intra-project learning serves as
the foundation for the inter-project learning by providing the experiences to be
assimilated for the end of the project learning.
The intra-project organizational learning process focuses on the tasks within a single
project. The creation of organizational memory during intra-project takes place
during the project planning, execution, and close-oul phases. Knowledge is created in
1) the definition of the project plan and 2) the comparison of the actual results to the
plan. Explanations for both performance variances and non-variances offer
opportunities for learning. Innovative approaches for completing a task should be
documented as well as any major problems encountered and the approaches used to
overcome the problems. Knowledge creation produces a lesson learned (Juran 1988)
which includes the following components: plan (goals, conditions, and steps or
actions); results; and recommendations (what worked and why, and what didn’t work
and why) (Kotnour 1995). Knowledge assimilation occurs through the continuous
capture and storage of the lessons learned. Knowledge dissemination occurs through
the virtual workers sharing amongst themselves whai has been learned on their given
tasks and sharing the gained knowledge for inter-project learning. The intra-learning
focuses on the tasks within a project.
Inter-project learning focuses on taking the knowledge created, assimilatedl, and
disseminated from the intra-project learning and assimilating and applying
appropriately new knowledge ?with past project knovvledge to support knovvledge
dissemination to and creation in other projects. The inter-project knowledge creation
is the drawing of lessons learnled from a single project (i.e., lessons learned for the
project). The knowledge assiimilation is the combiniing of lessons learned aLcross
projects to develop new knowledge. The dissemination function is the sharing of
lessons learned across projects to support intra-project learning for the next project.
The cycle begins anew for each project.
The characteristics of the vintual organization pose possible barriers and
enhancements to the organizational learning modes and timing. We hypothesize that
the socialization, externalization, and internalization modes are most exhiblited by the
high levels of informal comrnrinications exhibited in the physical co-location of
workers in communities of practice (Brown & Dugiiid 1991). Traditional balances
and expressions between these three modes may be modified for sharing knowledge
in the virtual organization because the very nature of the virtual organization relies on
electronic communication; that is, during the project the communities of practice may
be primarily electronic communities. An analogy may be drawn between the dynamic
changes that occurred in the actors when the entertainment industry shifted from
radio to television or silent filims to talking films. Immediately the dynamics clhanged
the qualities needed for success. These three modes may be modified for inter-project
learning because workers within a virtual organization will be consistently changing
from prqiect to project. Therefore, the combination mode of sharing explicit to
explicit knowledge may be a primary source for sharing knowledge within and
between projects Based on the characteristics of the virtual organization and the need
for organizational learning in the virtual organization, we offer the following
hypotheses to base our description of knowledge management tools to support
organizational learning in a virtual organization:
Learning takes place within and between projects,.
Virtual communities of pr-ac tice are dispersed and ever changing.
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