through the change of variable x
′
= x + 1 3a. This change of variable appears for the first time in two anonymous florentine manuscripts near the end of the 14th century. If only positive coefficients and positive values of x are admitted, there are three cases, all collectively known as depressed cubic:
(a) x3 + px = q (b) x3 = px + q (c) x3 + q = px
4. The first to solve equation (1) (and maybe (2) and (3)) was Scipione del Ferro, professor of U. of Bologna until 1526, when he died. In his deathbed, del Ferro confided the formula to his pupil Antonio Maria Fiore. Fiore challenged Tartaglia to a mathematical contest. The night before the contest, Tartaglia rediscovered the formula and won the contest. Tartaglia in turn told the formula (but not the proof) to Gerolamo Cardano, who signed an oath to secrecy. From knowledge of the formula, Cardano was able to reconstruct the proof. Later, Cardano learned that del Ferro had the formula and verified this by interviewing relatives who gave him access to del Ferro’s papers. Cardano then proceeded to publish the formula for all three cases in his Ars Magna (1545). It is noteworthy that Cardano mentioned del Ferro as first author, and Tartaglia as obtaining the formula later in independent manner.
5. A difficulty in case (2) that was not present in the solution to (1) is the possibility of having the square root of a negative number appear in the numerical expression given by the formula. Here is the derivation: Substitute x = u + v into x3 = px + q to obtain
x3
−px = u3 + v3 + 3uv(u + v)−p(u + v) = q Set 3uv = p above to obtain u3 +v3 = q and also u3v3 = (p/3)3. That is, the sum and the product of two cubes is known. This is used to form a quadratic equation which is readily solved: x = u + v = 3 s1 2 q + w + 3 s1 2 q −w where w =s(1 2 q)2 − ( 1 3 p)3 The so-called casus irreducibilis is when the expression under the radical symbol in w is negative. Cardano avoids discussing this case in Ars Magna. Perhaps, in his mind, avoiding it was justified by the (incorrect) correspondence between the casus irreducibilis and the lack of a real, positive solution for the cubic. 6. According to [9], “Cardano was the first to introduce complex numbers a + √ −b into algebra, but had misgivings about it.” In Chapter 37 of Ars Magna the following problem is posed: “To divide 10 in two parts, the product of which is 40”.
It is clear that this case is impossible. Nevertheless, we shall work thus: We divide 10 into two equal parts, making each 5. These we square, making 25. Subtract 40, if you will, from the 25 thus produced, as I showed you in the chapter on operations in the sixth book leaving a remainder of -15, the square