decreased over time in the students exposed to problem-based instruction and although problem-focused coping did not
significantly change, emotionally coping with stressful situations significantly increased over time in these students. Once
again, it is hard to integrate these results with those reported from medical and engineering schools as the focus was on
affective rather than cognitive effects of problem-based learning and no comparisons were done between problem-based
learning and traditional, lecture-based instruction. However, if we can conceptualize tolerance for ambiguity and coping
as problem-solving skills, this result supports the work done in medical and engineering schools, that is problem-based
learning leads to better problem-solving or knowledge application skills.
In general, these studies in management and business classroom environments support, to some extent, the studies in
engineering classroom environments and the three meta-analyses in medical school classroom environments. Students
respond more favorably to a problem-based assessment tool, rate their experience in a problem-based classroom positively,
and develop better emotional coping and problem solving skills than when exposed to more traditional approaches.
In summary, across some 90 studies, some employing multiple samples, in three general academic areas, medical, engineering,
and management, problem-based learning leads to improved problem-solving skills, broadly defined, but not
knowledge acquisition, as compared to traditional, lecture-based approaches to education. Though, students do generally
have a positive view of their experience in a problem-based learning classroom.
4. An alternative theoretical foundation for problem-based learning
The issue of problem-based learning resolves to two questions. First, why is it that the predictions from Constructivist
theory, that problem-based learning should lead to improved knowledge acquisition and problem-solving and critical
thinking skills, only seem to be half correct? And, if Constructivist theory and its predictions for research outcomes are not
fully correct, shouldn't alternative theories be considered or crafted to help explain the results that are obtained? Second, why
do we not see better outcomes for problem-based learning when compared to a more traditional, lecture-based curriculum?
Would the consideration of a different theoretical perspective, more in line with research outcomes, lead management
development professionals, whether academic or professional, to consider different outcome measures?
One quite old (in the sense of having a long history), but novel in this context (in the sense of not having been applied to
higher education), pedagogical theory that might be helpful in understanding problem-based learning is Montessorian
pedagogical theory (Montessori, 2012). Some applications of the Montessorian approach have been directed at secondary
education, but the approach has not been applied at the post-secondary level, and this is mainly because Maria Montessori
developed her pedagogy based on her direct and exclusive observation of young children (Martin, 2004).
Montessorian pedagogical theory is based on the philosophy and methodology developed by Maria Montessori
(Kirkpatrick, 2008; Martin, 2004). According to this pedagogical theory the goal of education is not for the instructor to
“direct, drill, or instruct”, but rather to foster independent mastery among the students (Martin, 2004). This is based on the
premise that students will work on their own, and quite actively, to develop their own potential and skills (Kirkpatrick, 2008).
Therefore, the role of the instructor in the Montessorian approach is one of facilitator, to provide learning-appropriate stimuli
that allows the student to develop his or her own potentials and skills.
Dubbed “scientific pedagogy”, the Montessorian approach is based on leveraging the inherent inquisitiveness of the
learner (Brendt, 2012). The underlying assumption is that the learner learns best when following his or her own interests for
long, uninterrupted stretches of time. When a student is engaged in a learning activity that he or she is inherently interested
in, his or her learning appears effortless (Brendt, 2012). Therefore, the instructor's role is simply to provide exposure to
subjects and materials, then observe in which subjects and materials the learner shows most interest. Finally, the instructor
would prepare the learning environment to allow for a deeper exploration of what intrigues the learner. “Learning occurs as a
fluid process reflective of respect for the individuality of the” learner (Brendt, 2012, p. 11). The instructor in a Montessorian
classroom functions more as a facilitator, developing learning environments and activities that are aligned with the development
and learning needs of the students (Martin, 2004).
More philosophically, Montessori suggested that students learn because of an “inner force” which “prompts” the student
“to seek out certain experiences and activities at certain times” (Crain, 2004, p. 2). These activities allow the student to
develop his or her underlying skills and abilities. And when these activities are found, then motivate the student to enthusiastically
engage with the activities without the need for instructor direction or supervision. Given this, the goal of the
instructor is to provide these activities and allow the student's inner force to guide the student to learn. The instructor must
trust the student to freely choose to engage with the activity and work independently on the activity, realizing underlying
skills and abilities in the process (Crain, 2004).
The Montessorian approach is in direct contrast to the traditional, lecture-based curriculum with its emphasis on external
motivation and dependence on an instructor. The traditional approach to education focuses on the student performing in
order to receive external rewards or avoid punishments for performance: awards, grades, praise, or criticism (Crain, 2004).
The Montessorian approach to education focuses on the intrinsic motivation of self-directed learning, and self-discovery of
skills and abilities.
Additionally, the Montessorian approach emphasizes the social nature of learning (Crain, 2004). In the traditional Montessorian
classroom, students are mixed in terms of age, experience, skill, and ability. The underlying assumption is that those
students with more experience, skill, and ability will help those students with less experience, skill, and ability learn through
the process of learning together