Prescriptive approaches are often implemented through participatory or team
leadership approaches, according to Manz and Sims (1996, p. 157). Manz, Keating, and
Donnellen (1990) estimated that approximately 300 U.S. manufacturing companies were
using some form of self-management and participative team approach to management.
According to Frayne (1987), the practices of self-management "have been introduced to
address employee turnover, absenteeism and dissatisfaction, decreases in the quality and
quantity of production, and employee flexibility and autonomy" (p. 47).