Between 1929 and 1948 the Journal of Adult Education, published by the American Association for Adult Education, carried articles by successful teachers of adult describing ways in which they were teaching adults that deviated from the pedagogical model. Frequently the authors of these articles expressed a sense of guilt for violating academic standards (such as substituting interviews for quizzes). Obviously, they were feeling guilty because they had no theory to support their practices; they were simply being pragmatic and following their intuitions