Most reviews concerning the impact of climate change on coral reefs discuss independent effects of
warming or ocean acidification. However, the interactions between these, and between these and direct
local stressors are less well addressed. This review underlines that coral bleaching, acidification, and diseases
are expected to interact synergistically, and will negatively influence survival, growth, reproduction,
larval development, settlement, and post-settlement development of corals. Interactions with
local stress factors such as pollution, sedimentation, and overfishing are further expected to compound
effects of climate change.
Reduced coral cover and species composition following coral bleaching events affect coral reef fish
community structure, with variable outcomes depending on their habitat dependence and trophic specialisation.
Ocean acidification itself impacts fish mainly indirectly through disruption of predationand
habitat-associated behavior changes.
Zooxanthellate octocorals on reefs are often overlooked but are substantial occupiers of space; these
also are highly susceptible to bleaching but because they tend to be more heterotrophic, climate change
impacts mainly manifest in terms of changes in species composition and population structure. Non-calcifying
macroalgae are expected to respond positively to ocean acidification and promote microbeinduced
coral mortality via the release of dissolved compounds, thus intensifying phase-shifts from coral
to macroalgal domination.
Adaptation of corals to these consequences of CO2 rise through increased tolerance of corals and successful
mutualistic associations between corals and zooxanthellae is likely to be insufficient to match the
rate and frequency of the projected changes.
Impacts are interactive and magnified, and because there is a limited capacity for corals to adapt to climate
change, global targets of carbon emission reductions are insufficient for coral reefs, so lower targets
should be pursued. Alleviation of most local stress factors such as nutrient discharges, sedimentation, and
overfishing is also imperative if sufficient overall resilience of reefs to climate change is to be achieved.
Most reviews concerning the impact of climate change on coral reefs discuss independent effects ofwarming or ocean acidification. However, the interactions between these, and between these and directlocal stressors are less well addressed. This review underlines that coral bleaching, acidification, and diseasesare expected to interact synergistically, and will negatively influence survival, growth, reproduction,larval development, settlement, and post-settlement development of corals. Interactions withlocal stress factors such as pollution, sedimentation, and overfishing are further expected to compoundeffects of climate change.Reduced coral cover and species composition following coral bleaching events affect coral reef fishcommunity structure, with variable outcomes depending on their habitat dependence and trophic specialisation.Ocean acidification itself impacts fish mainly indirectly through disruption of predationandhabitat-associated behavior changes.Zooxanthellate octocorals on reefs are often overlooked but are substantial occupiers of space; thesealso are highly susceptible to bleaching but because they tend to be more heterotrophic, climate changeimpacts mainly manifest in terms of changes in species composition and population structure. Non-calcifyingmacroalgae are expected to respond positively to ocean acidification and promote microbeinducedcoral mortality via the release of dissolved compounds, thus intensifying phase-shifts from coralto macroalgal domination.Adaptation of corals to these consequences of CO2 rise through increased tolerance of corals and successfulmutualistic associations between corals and zooxanthellae is likely to be insufficient to match therate and frequency of the projected changes.Impacts are interactive and magnified, and because there is a limited capacity for corals to adapt to climatechange, global targets of carbon emission reductions are insufficient for coral reefs, so lower targetsshould be pursued. Alleviation of most local stress factors such as nutrient discharges, sedimentation, andoverfishing is also imperative if sufficient overall resilience of reefs to climate change is to be achieved.
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