in 2012 the Obama administration released a
nine step road map to enhance civic learning and engagement in
democracy (http://www.ed.gov/civic-learning retrieved July 2013).
However, the compulsory inclusion of CE in the formal curricula has
also been criticized. Biesta and Lawy (2006; Lawy & Biesta, 2006)
argued that this type of educational policy suggests that citizenship
is an achievement, an outcome of education, and focuses on individuals
who lack the proper knowledge and skills, the right
values and correct dispositions. This largely ignores that young
people already participate in everyday (social) life and learn in
schools from interactions with teachers, subjects and peers, and
from activities such as participation in school councils, as well as in
other contexts and practices like with their family, friends, media
and other leisure activities. The authors plea for a focus on ‘citizenship-
as-practice’ instead.