Vitamins and minerals exhibit important immune-modulating
functions by entering cells and regulating gene expression.
Vitamin A affects the differentiation of epithelial cells and
inhibits IFN- production by T cells at the transcriptional
level, which results in stimulation of antibody-mediated
immune responses (153). Vitamin C prevents the production of
reactive oxygen intermediates and reduces DNA damage in
immune cells. Moreover, vitamin C inhibits the transcription of
NF-B, and down-regulates the production of pro-inflammatory
cytokines (154). Vitamin E is also an anti-oxidant and exerts an
anti-inflammatory effect. Vitamin E stabilizes the membrane
of immune cells and enhances the binding of antigen-presenting
cells and T cells (155).