Although open cholecystectomy (OC) was previously considered the criterion standard, laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) is now accepted as the criterion standard and preferred procedure in almost all cases.
Advantages of the laparoscopic approach include reduced pain and hospital stay and improved cosmetic results and patient satisfaction.
Lugo-Vicente found that the length of stay, days that pain medication is taken, and time before a regular diet can be resumed were all reduced by one half with LC.[18]
Some concern remains regarding the previously reported higher risk of bile duct injury. However, the incidence of complicated gallstone disease appears less common in the pediatric population than in the adult population, because most children present with symptomatic cholelithiasis without active inflammation. Consequently, the rate of ductal complications is very low.
Acute inflammation of the gallbladder has been a concern, but many authors now agree that acute cholecystitis is not a contraindication; however, the surgeon must be experienced and well skilled with laparoscopic techniques. In addition, conversion to OC can always be performed in difficult cases.
Some authors assert that LC is ideal in infants and children and should be the procedure of choice. In this case, surgical experience with laparoscopy and with infants is essential. Wide spacing of cannulas is helpful in small children to allow for visualization and adequate working distance. Also, with conscientious surgical technique, some authors believe that bile duct injury can be minimized.
In general, OC is reserved for conversion and cases of prior major abdominal surgery. OC is accomplished through a right subcostal incision or a transverse abdominal incision if a splenectomy is also indicated. Laparoscopic entry involves 4 ports: 2 subcostal, 1 subxiphoid, and 1 umbilical.
The surgical course is usually routine. Patients can be admitted to the hospital the day of surgery and discharged within 48-72 hours. The average postsurgical hospital stay after LC is 36 hours, whereas patients undergoing OC typically need to stay in the hospital for 3 days.
Continue hydration until the patient can tolerate a regular diet, usually the morning after LC. In either procedure, it is recommended to observe the patient postoperatively for complications, including fever, jaundice, ileus, pancreatitis, bile leak, or urinary retention. Jaundice or continued right upper quadrant pain may signify a retained common duct stone or biliary injury and should be investigated using ERCP or hepatoiminodiacetic acid (HIDA) scanning as soon as possible.
Technique for laparoscopic cholecystectomy in children
The technique for laparoscopic cholecystectomy in pediatric patients is very similar to the one described in adult patients; however, a few variables must be considered.[19, 20, 21]
First, the trocar placement (demonstrated in the image below) is determined by patient size and position of the gallbladder and the liver.
Operative photograph illustrating the position of
Operative photograph illustrating the position of small (5 mm, 10 mm) trocars in the abdomen of a 12-year-old child undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy. By using this technique, the surgeon can avoid large incisions and remove the gallbladder safely.
The authors usually start by placing a 12-mm trocar in the umbilical position. A small incision is made from the center of the umbilicus inferiorly, in order to expose the midline fascia at the umbilicus. Local anesthetic is infiltrated at that site.
The authors' preferred approach is to place a STEP trocar (Covidien Surgical; Mansfield, MA) through that site using a Verees needle technique. Starting with a 5-mm STEP trocar is recommended; once the peritoneal cavity is insufflated with carbon dioxide, the trocar is upgraded to a 12-mm STEP placed through the same sleeve as the 5-mm trocar.
Typically, the peritoneal cavity is insufflated with carbon dioxide using the following pressure limits:
Obese teenaged patients - 16 mm Hg
Normal-sized, healthy teenaged patients - 14 mm Hg
Patients aged 8-12 years - 12 mm Hg
Patients younger than 7 years - 10 mm Hg
If the patient had any previous abdominal surgery or is significantly obese, the authors prefer to use an open technique for the initial trocar placement. In such cases, creating an opening on the inferior aspect of the umbilicus until the muscle fascia and the linea Alba can be visualized is important.
Stay sutures of 2-0 Vicryl are placed on each side of the muscle fascia, which is then opened under direct visualization. Additional Vicryl sutures may be needed in order to elevate the fascia until the peritoneal membrane can be visualized and entered.
Once the peritoneum is open, a 12-mm trocar can be inserted under direct visualization, and the peritoneal cavity is insufflated with carbon dioxide. The authors perform most LCs with a 5-mm, 30°-angled laparoscope. However, in patients who are significantly obese, a 10-mm trocar should be used to perform the cystic duct dissection, as the small 5-mm laparoscope does not generate enough light inside the large abdominal cavity of an obese patient and may compromise the surgeon’s ability to clearly visualize all vital structures surrounding the cystic duct.
Considering that most complications related to laparoscopic gallbladder surgery occur during the dissection and exposure of the cystic duct, one should never work under poor light and inadequate visualization at that point in the operation. Beginning the procedure with the 10-mm laparoscope in place via the 12-mm trocar is fairly easy, as is changing to a 5-mm laparoscope once the dissection and exposure of the cystic duct and artery are completed.
Second, subsequent trocar placement in children must be determined individually once the gallbladder fundus is visualized with the laparoscope. A 5-mm trocar is typically placed in the subxiphoid region. Another 5-mm trocar should be placed in the mid-right upper quadrant of the abdomen (at the level of the midclavicular line) in a way that allows the introduction of a laparoscopic instrument used to manipulate the neck of the gallbladder. This trocar is usually placed about 2 cm below the costal margin. However, in small children, it must be placed closer to the costal margin.
The last trocar should be a 5-mm trocar placed laterally in the right upper quadrant. This trocar is used for placement of a grasping instrument, such as a McKernan grasping-locking forceps, that is placed on the fundus of the gallbladder for retraction. For that reason, the trocar should not be placed too far from the costal margin. (See the image below.)
Diagram illustrating the technique for laparoscopi
Diagram illustrating the technique for laparoscopic cholecystectomy. The gallbladder is retracted with grasping 5-mm laparoscopic instruments, and clips are applied over the cystic duct and artery.
Once the gallbladder fundus is grasped, it must be displaced towards the patient’s right shoulder, above the right lobe of the liver. This maneuver allows for exposure of the neck of the gallbladder. One assistant should keep the fundus of the gallbladder pushed toward the patient’s shoulder region at all times. This elevates the neck of the gallbladder together with the cystic duct and artery, facilitating dissection and exposure.
The third important step is the exposure and dissection of the neck of the gallbladder. If significant inflammatory changes are identified, the authors prefer to perform an intraoperative cholangiography to help define the anatomy of the cystic duct and its relationship to the gallbladder and common bile duct.
Other indications for intraoperative cholangiography are a history of jaundice, pancreatitis, dilation of the common bile duct, and the presence of small gallstones. The benefits of using cholangiography have not been proven for routine cholecystectomy, routine screening for congenital anomalies, or assessment of the common bile duct for obstruction in the absence of clinical suspicion.
Cholangiography can be performed intravenously or percutaneously. The authors prefer to perform a cholangiography through the gallbladder. This can be easily performed by placing a percutaneous catheter in the gallbladder under laparoscopic visualization. The gallbladder is filled with water-soluble dye, and radiographic images are obtained with live fluoroscopy.
Intraoperative cholangiography allows the surgeon to identify any points of biliary obstruction and determine whether any evidence of common bile duct stones is present. In addition, it provides information about the length and relative location of the cystic duct, facilitating dissection and minimizing the risk of injury to the ducts.
The dissection for exposure of the cystic duct and artery is started at the neck of the gallbladder. Initially mobilizing the visceral peritoneum and any inflammatory adhesions away from the neck of the gallbladder is important. This can be easily performed using a hook with electrocautery. The authors usually have the surgeon manipulate the laparoscopic camera, with a hook or Maryland dissector in the right hand placed via the subxiphoid trocar.
The assistant should be retracting the fundus of the gallbladder toward the right shoulder at all times and should also have a blunt grasper in the right hand to manipulate the neck of the gallbladder. This manipulation involves moving the neck back and forth, toward the patient’s right and left side, providing dynamic exposure for the surgeon. The assistant should never keep the neck of the gallbladder in a fixed and locked position.
Using careful dissection, the surgeon must achieve the so-called "critical view." This refers to the visualization of the cystic duct and artery as they enter the gallbladder.
Dissecting towards the common bile duct and exposing the duct is not necessary. Once the point of entry of the
แม้เปิด cholecystectomy (องศาเซลเซียส) ก่อนหน้านี้ถือเป็นเกณฑ์มาตรฐาน cholecystectomy ผ่านกล้อง (LC) ตอนนี้ยอมรับตามเกณฑ์มาตรฐาน และต้องดำเนินในเกือบทุกกรณีข้อดีของวิธีส่องกล้องได้แก่ลดอาการปวดและโรงพยาบาลพัก และปรับปรุงเครื่องสำอางผล และความพึงพอใจผู้ป่วยLugo Vicente พบว่าความยาวของห้องพัก วันที่จะได้รับยาแก้ปวด และเวลาก่อนอาหารปกติสามารถดำเนินต่อไปได้ทั้งหมดลดลงโดยครึ่งกับ LC [18]บางยังคงกังวลเกี่ยวกับความเสี่ยงสูงก่อนหน้านี้รายงานของการบาดเจ็บของท่อน้ำดี อย่างไรก็ตาม อุบัติการณ์ของโรคนิ่วซับซ้อนปรากฏน้อยทั่วไปในประชากรเด็กกว่าในประชากรผู้ใหญ่ เนื่องจากเด็กส่วนใหญ่นำเสนอ cholelithiasis อาการโดยไม่มีการอักเสบที่ใช้งานอยู่ ดังนั้น อัตราของภาวะแทรกซ้อน ductal จะต่ำมากอักเสบเฉียบพลันของถุงน้ำดีมีความกังวล แต่ผู้เขียนมากเดี๋ยวนี้เห็น cholecystitis เฉียบพลันที่ไม่มีข้อห้ามใช้ อย่างไรก็ตาม ศัลยแพทย์ต้องมีประสบการณ์ และมีฝีมือดี ด้วยเทคนิคทั่วไป แปลงองศาเซลเซียสสามารถจะดำเนินการในกรณีที่ยากนั้นบางอย่างผู้เขียนยืนยันรูป LC เหมาะในทารกและเด็ก และควรมีกระบวนการที่เลือก ในกรณีนี้ ประสบการณ์ผ่าตัดผ่าตัดผ่านกล้อง และทารกเป็นสิ่งจำเป็น ระยะกว้างของ cannulas มีประโยชน์ในเด็กเล็กเพื่อให้การแสดงภาพประกอบเพลงและพอทำงานทางไกล ยัง ด้วยเทคนิคการผ่าตัดคุณธรรม บางผู้เขียนเชื่อว่า สามารถลดการบาดเจ็บของท่อน้ำดีIn general, OC is reserved for conversion and cases of prior major abdominal surgery. OC is accomplished through a right subcostal incision or a transverse abdominal incision if a splenectomy is also indicated. Laparoscopic entry involves 4 ports: 2 subcostal, 1 subxiphoid, and 1 umbilical.The surgical course is usually routine. Patients can be admitted to the hospital the day of surgery and discharged within 48-72 hours. The average postsurgical hospital stay after LC is 36 hours, whereas patients undergoing OC typically need to stay in the hospital for 3 days.Continue hydration until the patient can tolerate a regular diet, usually the morning after LC. In either procedure, it is recommended to observe the patient postoperatively for complications, including fever, jaundice, ileus, pancreatitis, bile leak, or urinary retention. Jaundice or continued right upper quadrant pain may signify a retained common duct stone or biliary injury and should be investigated using ERCP or hepatoiminodiacetic acid (HIDA) scanning as soon as possible.Technique for laparoscopic cholecystectomy in childrenThe technique for laparoscopic cholecystectomy in pediatric patients is very similar to the one described in adult patients; however, a few variables must be considered.[19, 20, 21]First, the trocar placement (demonstrated in the image below) is determined by patient size and position of the gallbladder and the liver.Operative photograph illustrating the position of Operative photograph illustrating the position of small (5 mm, 10 mm) trocars in the abdomen of a 12-year-old child undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy. By using this technique, the surgeon can avoid large incisions and remove the gallbladder safely.The authors usually start by placing a 12-mm trocar in the umbilical position. A small incision is made from the center of the umbilicus inferiorly, in order to expose the midline fascia at the umbilicus. Local anesthetic is infiltrated at that site.The authors' preferred approach is to place a STEP trocar (Covidien Surgical; Mansfield, MA) through that site using a Verees needle technique. Starting with a 5-mm STEP trocar is recommended; once the peritoneal cavity is insufflated with carbon dioxide, the trocar is upgraded to a 12-mm STEP placed through the same sleeve as the 5-mm trocar.Typically, the peritoneal cavity is insufflated with carbon dioxide using the following pressure limits:Obese teenaged patients - 16 mm HgNormal-sized, healthy teenaged patients - 14 mm HgPatients aged 8-12 years - 12 mm HgPatients younger than 7 years - 10 mm HgIf the patient had any previous abdominal surgery or is significantly obese, the authors prefer to use an open technique for the initial trocar placement. In such cases, creating an opening on the inferior aspect of the umbilicus until the muscle fascia and the linea Alba can be visualized is important.Stay sutures of 2-0 Vicryl are placed on each side of the muscle fascia, which is then opened under direct visualization. Additional Vicryl sutures may be needed in order to elevate the fascia until the peritoneal membrane can be visualized and entered.Once the peritoneum is open, a 12-mm trocar can be inserted under direct visualization, and the peritoneal cavity is insufflated with carbon dioxide. The authors perform most LCs with a 5-mm, 30°-angled laparoscope. However, in patients who are significantly obese, a 10-mm trocar should be used to perform the cystic duct dissection, as the small 5-mm laparoscope does not generate enough light inside the large abdominal cavity of an obese patient and may compromise the surgeon’s ability to clearly visualize all vital structures surrounding the cystic duct.Considering that most complications related to laparoscopic gallbladder surgery occur during the dissection and exposure of the cystic duct, one should never work under poor light and inadequate visualization at that point in the operation. Beginning the procedure with the 10-mm laparoscope in place via the 12-mm trocar is fairly easy, as is changing to a 5-mm laparoscope once the dissection and exposure of the cystic duct and artery are completed.Second, subsequent trocar placement in children must be determined individually once the gallbladder fundus is visualized with the laparoscope. A 5-mm trocar is typically placed in the subxiphoid region. Another 5-mm trocar should be placed in the mid-right upper quadrant of the abdomen (at the level of the midclavicular line) in a way that allows the introduction of a laparoscopic instrument used to manipulate the neck of the gallbladder. This trocar is usually placed about 2 cm below the costal margin. However, in small children, it must be placed closer to the costal margin.The last trocar should be a 5-mm trocar placed laterally in the right upper quadrant. This trocar is used for placement of a grasping instrument, such as a McKernan grasping-locking forceps, that is placed on the fundus of the gallbladder for retraction. For that reason, the trocar should not be placed too far from the costal margin. (See the image below.)Diagram illustrating the technique for laparoscopiDiagram illustrating the technique for laparoscopic cholecystectomy. The gallbladder is retracted with grasping 5-mm laparoscopic instruments, and clips are applied over the cystic duct and artery.Once the gallbladder fundus is grasped, it must be displaced towards the patient’s right shoulder, above the right lobe of the liver. This maneuver allows for exposure of the neck of the gallbladder. One assistant should keep the fundus of the gallbladder pushed toward the patient’s shoulder region at all times. This elevates the neck of the gallbladder together with the cystic duct and artery, facilitating dissection and exposure.
The third important step is the exposure and dissection of the neck of the gallbladder. If significant inflammatory changes are identified, the authors prefer to perform an intraoperative cholangiography to help define the anatomy of the cystic duct and its relationship to the gallbladder and common bile duct.
Other indications for intraoperative cholangiography are a history of jaundice, pancreatitis, dilation of the common bile duct, and the presence of small gallstones. The benefits of using cholangiography have not been proven for routine cholecystectomy, routine screening for congenital anomalies, or assessment of the common bile duct for obstruction in the absence of clinical suspicion.
Cholangiography can be performed intravenously or percutaneously. The authors prefer to perform a cholangiography through the gallbladder. This can be easily performed by placing a percutaneous catheter in the gallbladder under laparoscopic visualization. The gallbladder is filled with water-soluble dye, and radiographic images are obtained with live fluoroscopy.
Intraoperative cholangiography allows the surgeon to identify any points of biliary obstruction and determine whether any evidence of common bile duct stones is present. In addition, it provides information about the length and relative location of the cystic duct, facilitating dissection and minimizing the risk of injury to the ducts.
The dissection for exposure of the cystic duct and artery is started at the neck of the gallbladder. Initially mobilizing the visceral peritoneum and any inflammatory adhesions away from the neck of the gallbladder is important. This can be easily performed using a hook with electrocautery. The authors usually have the surgeon manipulate the laparoscopic camera, with a hook or Maryland dissector in the right hand placed via the subxiphoid trocar.
The assistant should be retracting the fundus of the gallbladder toward the right shoulder at all times and should also have a blunt grasper in the right hand to manipulate the neck of the gallbladder. This manipulation involves moving the neck back and forth, toward the patient’s right and left side, providing dynamic exposure for the surgeon. The assistant should never keep the neck of the gallbladder in a fixed and locked position.
Using careful dissection, the surgeon must achieve the so-called "critical view." This refers to the visualization of the cystic duct and artery as they enter the gallbladder.
Dissecting towards the common bile duct and exposing the duct is not necessary. Once the point of entry of the
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