The “effect” of attaining primary
or junior high school education is larger than for a one (or
two) standard deviation change in log pce. Factors such as good
general health during childhood are negatively associated with
later depressive symptoms, although adding these into the regressions
does little to affect the size of the schooling and log pce
coefficients. There exist strong gender differences, with females
having higher depressive symptom scores. Being a recent widow or
widower is associated with more depressive symptoms, as is having
a recent child death for women. Chronic health problems such
as moderate or severe pain and having disabilities as measured by
problems performing ADLs or IADLs are positively and significantly
related to higher levels of depressive symptoms. Indeed when we
add these covariates, the magnitudes and significance of the education
variables shrinks towards zero and become not significant;
while the log pce coefficients get smaller as well (although still
significant). Hence it appears that part of the pathway behind the
SES gradient of depressive symptoms is working through chronic
health problems.