Attribution theory[edit]
Research on attribution biases is founded in attribution theory, which was proposed to explain why and how we create meaning about others' and our own behavior. This theory focuses on identifying how an observer uses information in his/her social environment in order to create a causal explanation for events. Attribution theory also provides explanations for why different people can interpret the same event in different ways and what factors contribute to attribution biases.[10]
Fritz Heider[edit]
Psychologist Fritz Heider first discussed attributions in his 1958 book, The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations.[1] Heider made several important contributions that laid the foundation for further research on attribution theory and attribution biases. He noted that people tend to make distinctions between behaviors that are caused by personal disposition versus environmental or situational conditions. He also predicted that people are more likely to explain others' behavior in terms of dispositional factors (i.e., caused by a given person's personality), while ignoring the surrounding situational demands.
Jones & Davis[edit]
Building on Heider's early work, other psychologists in the 1960s and 70s extended work on attributions by offering additional related theories. In 1965, social psychologists Edward E. Jones and Keith Davis proposed an explanation for patterns of attribution termed correspondent inference theory.[6] A 'correspondent inference' refers to the assumption that a person's behavior reflects a stable disposition or personality characteristic. They explained that certain conditions make us more likely to make a correspondent inference about someone's behavior:
Intention
People are more likely to make a correspondent inference when they interpret someone's behavior as intentional, rather than unintentional
Social desirability
People are more likely to make a correspondent inference when an actor's behavior is socially undesirable than when it is conventional.
Effects of behavior
People are more likely to make a correspondent, or dispositional, inference when someone else's actions yield outcomes that are rare or not yielded by other actions.
Harold Kelley[edit]
Soon after Jones and Davis first proposed their correspondent inference theory, Harold Kelley, a social psychologist famous for his work on interdependence theory as well as attribution theory, proposed a covariation model to explain the way people make attributions.[2] This model helped to explain how people decide to attribute a behavior to an internal disposition versus an environmental factor. Kelley used the term 'covariation' to convey that when making attributions, people have access to information from many observations, across different situations, and at many time points; therefore, people can see the way a behavior varies under these different conditions. He proposed three factors that influence the way we explain behavior:
Consensus: The extent to which other people behave in the same way. There is high consensus when most people behave consistent with a given action/actor. Low consensus is when not many people behave in this way.
Consistency: The extent to which a person usually behaves in a given way. There is high consistency when a person almost always behaves in a certain way. Low consistency is when a person almost never behaves like this.
Distinctiveness: The extent to which an actor's behavior in one situation is different from his/her behavior in other situations. There is high distinctiveness when an actor does not behave this way in most situations. Low distinctiveness is when an actor does usually behave in a particular way in most situations.
Kelley proposed that we are more likely to make dispositional attributions when consensus is low (most other people don't behave in the same way), consistency is high (a person behaves this way across most situations), and distinctiveness is low (a person's behavior is not unique to this situation). Alternatively, situational attributions are more likely reached when consensus is high, consistency is high, and distinctiveness is high.[11] His research helped to reveal the specific mechanisms underlying the process of making attributions.
Biased attributions[edit]
As early researchers explored the way people make causal attributions, they also recognized that attributions do not necessarily reflect reality and can be colored by a person's own perspective.[7][12] Certain conditions can prompt people to exhibit attribution biases, or draw inaccurate conclusions about the cause of a given behavior or outcome. In his work on attribution theory, Fritz Heider noted that in ambiguous situations, people make attributions based on their own wants and desires, which are therefore often skewed.[1] He also explained that this tendency was rooted in a need to maintain a positive self-concept, later termed the self-serving bias.
Kelley's covariation model also led to the acknowledgment of attribution biases.[11] The model explained the conditions under which people will make informed dispositional versus situational attributions. But, it assumed that people had access to such information (i.e., the consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness of a person's behavior). What about when we don't have access to such information, for example, when interacting with someone we don't know well? Lack of information results in a tendency to take cognitive shortcuts, resulting in different types of attribution biases, such as the actor-observer bias that will be discussed below.[7]
Cognitive explanation[edit]
Although psychologists agreed that people are prone to these cognitive biases, there existed disagreement concerning the cause of such biases. On one hand, supporters of a "cognitive model" argued that biases were a product of human information processing constraints. One major proponent of this view was Yale psychologist Michael Storms, who proposed this cognitive explanation following his 1973 study of social perception.[12] In his experiment, participants viewed a conversation between two individuals; we'll call them Actor one and Actor two. Some participants viewed the conversation while facing Actor one, such that they were unable to see the front of Actor two, while other participants viewed the conversation while facing Actor two, obstructed from the front of Actor one. Following the conversation, participants were asked to make attributions about the conversationalists. He found that participants ascribed more causal influence to the person they were looking at. In other words, participants made different attributions about people depending on the information they had access to. Storms used these results to bolster his theory of cognitively driven attribution biases; because we have no access to the world except for through our own eyes, we are inevitably constrained and consequently prone to biases. Similarly, social psychologist Anthony Greenwald described humans as possessing a totalitarian ego, meaning that we view the world through our own personal selves.[13] Therefore, different people inevitably interpret the world differently and in turn reach different conclusions.
Motivational explanation[edit]
These views of attributional biases as being a sole product of information processing constraints received criticism from researchers who argued that humans do not just passively interpret their world and make attributions; rather, we are active and goal-driven. Building on this criticism, research began to focus on the role of motives in driving attribution biases.[14] Researchers such as Ziva Kunda drew attention to the motivated aspects of attributions and attribution biases. Kunda in particular argued that certain biases only appear when people are presented with motivational pressures; therefore, they can not be exclusively explained by an objective cognitive process.[15] More specifically, we are more likely to construct biased social judgments when we are motivated to arrive at a particular conclusion, so long as we can justify this conclusion.[16]
Current theory[edit]
Early researchers explained attribution biases as cognitively driven and a product of information processing errors. In the early 1980s, studies demonstrated that there may also be a motivational component to attribution biases, such that our own desires and emotions have an impact on how we interpret social information.[16][17] Current research continues to explore the validity of both of these explanations by examining the function of specific types of attribution biases and their behavioral correlates through a variety of methods (e.g., research with children or using brain imaging techniques).[18][19][20]
Recent research on attribution biases has focused on identifying specific types of these biases and their impact on people's behavior.[8][21] Additionally, some psychologists have taken an applied approach and demonstrated how these biases can be understood in real-world contexts (e.g., the workplace or school).[22][23] Researchers have also used the theoretical framework of attributions and attribution biases in order to modify the way people interpret social information. Studies have implemented attributional retraining to help, for example, students have more positive perceptions of their own academic abilities.[22]
Limitations of the theory[edit]
There is much inconsistency in the claims made by scientists and researchers that attempt to prove or disprove attribution theories and the concept of attributional biases. The theory was formed as a comprehensive explanation of the way people interpret the basis of behaviors in human interactions. However, there have been studies that indicate cultural differences in the attribution biases between people of Eastern and Western societies.[24] Also, some scientists believe that attributional biases are only exhibited in certain contexts of interact
แสดงทฤษฎี [แก้ไข]วิจัยยอมแสดงการก่อตั้งขึ้นในทฤษฎีที่แสดงที่มา ที่ถูกเสนอจะอธิบายอย่างไร และทำไมเราสร้างความหมายเกี่ยวกับผู้อื่น และพฤติกรรมของเราเอง ทฤษฎีนี้เน้นการระบุว่าแหล่งที่ใช้ข้อมูลในสภาพแวดล้อมทางสังคมที่เขา/เธอเพื่อสร้างคำอธิบายเชิงสาเหตุสำหรับเหตุการณ์ แสดงทฤษฎียังมีคำอธิบายทำไมคนสามารถตีความเหตุการณ์เดียวกันด้วยวิธีการต่าง ๆ และปัจจัยที่นำไปแสดงยอม [10]ฟริทส์ Heider [แก้ไข]จิตวิทยา Heider ฟริทส์กล่าวถึง attributions ครั้งแรกในหนังสือของเขา 1958 เดอะจิตวิทยาของมนุษยสัมพันธ์ความสัมพันธ์ [1] Heider ทำผลงานที่สำคัญหลายที่วางรากฐานสำหรับการวิจัยเพิ่มเติมในทฤษฎีที่แสดงที่มาและยอมแสดง เขาตั้งข้อสังเกตว่า คนมักจะ ทำให้ความแตกต่างระหว่างพฤติกรรมที่เกิดจากการโอนการครอบครองส่วนบุคคลกับสภาพแวดล้อม หรือสร้างความ เขายังคาดการณ์ว่า คนมักอธิบายพฤติกรรมของคนอื่นในแง่ของการโอนการครอบครองปัจจัย (เช่น เกิดจากบุคลิกภาพของบุคคลที่กำหนด), ในขณะที่สองความต้องการในสถานการณ์แวดล้อมโจนส์และ Davis [แก้ไข]Building on Heider's early work, other psychologists in the 1960s and 70s extended work on attributions by offering additional related theories. In 1965, social psychologists Edward E. Jones and Keith Davis proposed an explanation for patterns of attribution termed correspondent inference theory.[6] A 'correspondent inference' refers to the assumption that a person's behavior reflects a stable disposition or personality characteristic. They explained that certain conditions make us more likely to make a correspondent inference about someone's behavior:IntentionPeople are more likely to make a correspondent inference when they interpret someone's behavior as intentional, rather than unintentionalSocial desirabilityPeople are more likely to make a correspondent inference when an actor's behavior is socially undesirable than when it is conventional.Effects of behaviorPeople are more likely to make a correspondent, or dispositional, inference when someone else's actions yield outcomes that are rare or not yielded by other actions.Harold Kelley[edit]Soon after Jones and Davis first proposed their correspondent inference theory, Harold Kelley, a social psychologist famous for his work on interdependence theory as well as attribution theory, proposed a covariation model to explain the way people make attributions.[2] This model helped to explain how people decide to attribute a behavior to an internal disposition versus an environmental factor. Kelley used the term 'covariation' to convey that when making attributions, people have access to information from many observations, across different situations, and at many time points; therefore, people can see the way a behavior varies under these different conditions. He proposed three factors that influence the way we explain behavior:Consensus: The extent to which other people behave in the same way. There is high consensus when most people behave consistent with a given action/actor. Low consensus is when not many people behave in this way.Consistency: The extent to which a person usually behaves in a given way. There is high consistency when a person almost always behaves in a certain way. Low consistency is when a person almost never behaves like this.Distinctiveness: The extent to which an actor's behavior in one situation is different from his/her behavior in other situations. There is high distinctiveness when an actor does not behave this way in most situations. Low distinctiveness is when an actor does usually behave in a particular way in most situations.Kelley proposed that we are more likely to make dispositional attributions when consensus is low (most other people don't behave in the same way), consistency is high (a person behaves this way across most situations), and distinctiveness is low (a person's behavior is not unique to this situation). Alternatively, situational attributions are more likely reached when consensus is high, consistency is high, and distinctiveness is high.[11] His research helped to reveal the specific mechanisms underlying the process of making attributions.
Biased attributions[edit]
As early researchers explored the way people make causal attributions, they also recognized that attributions do not necessarily reflect reality and can be colored by a person's own perspective.[7][12] Certain conditions can prompt people to exhibit attribution biases, or draw inaccurate conclusions about the cause of a given behavior or outcome. In his work on attribution theory, Fritz Heider noted that in ambiguous situations, people make attributions based on their own wants and desires, which are therefore often skewed.[1] He also explained that this tendency was rooted in a need to maintain a positive self-concept, later termed the self-serving bias.
Kelley's covariation model also led to the acknowledgment of attribution biases.[11] The model explained the conditions under which people will make informed dispositional versus situational attributions. But, it assumed that people had access to such information (i.e., the consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness of a person's behavior). What about when we don't have access to such information, for example, when interacting with someone we don't know well? Lack of information results in a tendency to take cognitive shortcuts, resulting in different types of attribution biases, such as the actor-observer bias that will be discussed below.[7]
Cognitive explanation[edit]
Although psychologists agreed that people are prone to these cognitive biases, there existed disagreement concerning the cause of such biases. On one hand, supporters of a "cognitive model" argued that biases were a product of human information processing constraints. One major proponent of this view was Yale psychologist Michael Storms, who proposed this cognitive explanation following his 1973 study of social perception.[12] In his experiment, participants viewed a conversation between two individuals; we'll call them Actor one and Actor two. Some participants viewed the conversation while facing Actor one, such that they were unable to see the front of Actor two, while other participants viewed the conversation while facing Actor two, obstructed from the front of Actor one. Following the conversation, participants were asked to make attributions about the conversationalists. He found that participants ascribed more causal influence to the person they were looking at. In other words, participants made different attributions about people depending on the information they had access to. Storms used these results to bolster his theory of cognitively driven attribution biases; because we have no access to the world except for through our own eyes, we are inevitably constrained and consequently prone to biases. Similarly, social psychologist Anthony Greenwald described humans as possessing a totalitarian ego, meaning that we view the world through our own personal selves.[13] Therefore, different people inevitably interpret the world differently and in turn reach different conclusions.
Motivational explanation[edit]
These views of attributional biases as being a sole product of information processing constraints received criticism from researchers who argued that humans do not just passively interpret their world and make attributions; rather, we are active and goal-driven. Building on this criticism, research began to focus on the role of motives in driving attribution biases.[14] Researchers such as Ziva Kunda drew attention to the motivated aspects of attributions and attribution biases. Kunda in particular argued that certain biases only appear when people are presented with motivational pressures; therefore, they can not be exclusively explained by an objective cognitive process.[15] More specifically, we are more likely to construct biased social judgments when we are motivated to arrive at a particular conclusion, so long as we can justify this conclusion.[16]
Current theory[edit]
Early researchers explained attribution biases as cognitively driven and a product of information processing errors. In the early 1980s, studies demonstrated that there may also be a motivational component to attribution biases, such that our own desires and emotions have an impact on how we interpret social information.[16][17] Current research continues to explore the validity of both of these explanations by examining the function of specific types of attribution biases and their behavioral correlates through a variety of methods (e.g., research with children or using brain imaging techniques).[18][19][20]
Recent research on attribution biases has focused on identifying specific types of these biases and their impact on people's behavior.[8][21] Additionally, some psychologists have taken an applied approach and demonstrated how these biases can be understood in real-world contexts (e.g., the workplace or school).[22][23] Researchers have also used the theoretical framework of attributions and attribution biases in order to modify the way people interpret social information. Studies have implemented attributional retraining to help, for example, students have more positive perceptions of their own academic abilities.[22]
Limitations of the theory[edit]
There is much inconsistency in the claims made by scientists and researchers that attempt to prove or disprove attribution theories and the concept of attributional biases. The theory was formed as a comprehensive explanation of the way people interpret the basis of behaviors in human interactions. However, there have been studies that indicate cultural differences in the attribution biases between people of Eastern and Western societies.[24] Also, some scientists believe that attributional biases are only exhibited in certain contexts of interact
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