we propose that Zr4+ ions
as the Lewis acid sites interact with the carbonyl group of xylose,
increase the positive charge on carbonyl carbon, and facilitate the
nucleophilic attack [32–34]. At the same time, the Lewis acid sites
increase the acidity of the active OH group at the position of C-3
carbon, and promote the deprotonation by the weak base, i.e. the
O2− cations on the ZrO2 surface. Thereafter the C C bond between
C-2 and C-3 carbons of xylose is cleaved leading to the formation of
glyceraldehyde and glycolaldehyde. Glyceraldehyde may undergo
the dehydration to form 2-hydroxypropenal, then to pyruval dehyde through keto-enol tautomerization, and finally to lactic acid,
as shown in Scheme 2. In the presence of a strong base catalyst like
concentrated NaOH, -keto aldehydes can be converted to hydroxy
acids in excellent yields via an intramolecular disproportionation,
i.e., Cannizzaro reaction [35]. However, Lewis acids are also considered to be capable of catalyzing the intramolecular Cannizzaro
reaction by activating the carbonyl function group of the aldehyde, allowing the nucleophilic attack by an electron donor and
then an intramolecular rearrangement with a shift of the hydride
[20,36]. Hara et al. found that water-tolerant Lewis acids such
as Sc(OTf)3 and Nb2O5·nH2O can effectively catalyze the hydride