8.3.8 Simulation of the long-term fate of CO2 in a large-scale model
One of the main objectives of reservoir simulation in a geological CO2 sequestration project is to make long term predictions of the fate of the injected CO2. The reservoir model constructed for this purpose should include the major features of the local model that control transport of CO2 on the relevant time scale. The fluid model of CO2 and brine must feature correct volumetric data (densities), phase behaviour (solubility) and transport properties (viscosities and diffusion coefficient).
In the SACS project, the information from the calibrated local model was extrapolated to
build a 3D reservoir model covering an area of 128 km2 to predict the fate of CO
over a time
period of thousands of years.
Capillary pressure and relative permeability describing the interaction between the porous media and the fluids were measured in laboratory experiments on Utsira cores. Computational constraints limited the number of grid blocks in the model to less than one million to achieve acceptable computation times. This represents a substantial coarsening of the grid compared to the local model. Preserving the physical consistency of the major transport phenomena in the new grid is a major challenge. In the model the cap rock shales are assumed to provide a capillary seal for the CO2 phase preventing upward migration, but allowing molecular diffusion of CO2 through the overlying strata.
The results of the simulations show that most of the CO2 accumulates in one bubble under the cap seal of the formation a few years after the injection is turned off. The CO2 bubble spreads laterally on top of the brine column and the migration is controlled by the topography of the cap seal only.
Molecular diffusion is driven by concentration gradients and can usually be neglected in reservoir simulations as it is a slow process compared to other transport processes. It is
attenuated due to diminishing concentration gradients, which is a result of the diffusion process itself. In this case, however, diffusion of CO2 from the gas cap into the underlying brine column will have a most pronounced effect. The brine on top of the column, which becomes enriched in CO2, is denser than the brine below due to the special volumetric properties of the CO2-brine system. This creates an instability that sets up convectional currents maintaining a large concentration gradient near the CO2/brine interface, enhancing the dissolution of CO2. This is illustrated in Figure 26.
Maps of the bubble as function of time are shown in Figure 27, where the top of the sand wedge is the controlling seal. In these simulations the dissolution of CO2 is neglected. If dissolution is included the bubble will reach a maximum size after probably less than 300 years. After this time dissolution is the dominating effect on bubble extension and the bubble will gradually shrink and finally disappear after less than 4000 years. This process commonly is called solubility trapping (Section 3.2.3). The primary benefit of solubility trapping is that once CO2 is dissolved, it no longer exists as a separate phase, thereby eliminating the buoyant forces that drive it upwards. Next, it will form ionic species as the rock dissolves, accompanied by a rise in the pH. Finally, some fraction may be converted to stable carbonate minerals (mineral trapping), the most permanent and secure form of geological storage (Gunter et al., 1993). Thus preliminary results suggest that in the long term (> 50 years) the phase behaviour (solubility and density dependence of composition) will become the controlling fluid parameters at Sleipner.
An alternative scenario where Top Utsira Sand (i.e. the top of the sand below the Sand Wedge) is the controlling topography for migration was also simulated. Figure 28 show that the CO2 will follow a more eastern path. This illustrates how sensitive the migration is to small changes in topography. Top Utsira and the top of the sand wedge are only between 14 and 35 m apart and relatively parallel. The top of the sand wedge dips slightly more towards the south west though, resulting in the large differences between distribution patterns. This test is only presented to illustrate the sensitivity of topography because it is quite unlikely that Top Utsira will retain any CO2 on long term because of its permeability.
Upward molecular diffusion of CO2 through the water-saturated overlying shales can potentially represent an escape path for CO2 into the atmosphere. Along this pathway injected CO2 will not reach the sea floor until several hundred thousand years after the end of injection. This escape mechanism can in practice be neglected.
8.3.8 Simulation of the long-term fate of CO2 in a large-scale model
One of the main objectives of reservoir simulation in a geological CO2 sequestration project is to make long term predictions of the fate of the injected CO2. The reservoir model constructed for this purpose should include the major features of the local model that control transport of CO2 on the relevant time scale. The fluid model of CO2 and brine must feature correct volumetric data (densities), phase behaviour (solubility) and transport properties (viscosities and diffusion coefficient).
In the SACS project, the information from the calibrated local model was extrapolated to
build a 3D reservoir model covering an area of 128 km2 to predict the fate of CO
over a time
period of thousands of years.
Capillary pressure and relative permeability describing the interaction between the porous media and the fluids were measured in laboratory experiments on Utsira cores. Computational constraints limited the number of grid blocks in the model to less than one million to achieve acceptable computation times. This represents a substantial coarsening of the grid compared to the local model. Preserving the physical consistency of the major transport phenomena in the new grid is a major challenge. In the model the cap rock shales are assumed to provide a capillary seal for the CO2 phase preventing upward migration, but allowing molecular diffusion of CO2 through the overlying strata.
The results of the simulations show that most of the CO2 accumulates in one bubble under the cap seal of the formation a few years after the injection is turned off. The CO2 bubble spreads laterally on top of the brine column and the migration is controlled by the topography of the cap seal only.
Molecular diffusion is driven by concentration gradients and can usually be neglected in reservoir simulations as it is a slow process compared to other transport processes. It is
attenuated due to diminishing concentration gradients, which is a result of the diffusion process itself. In this case, however, diffusion of CO2 from the gas cap into the underlying brine column will have a most pronounced effect. The brine on top of the column, which becomes enriched in CO2, is denser than the brine below due to the special volumetric properties of the CO2-brine system. This creates an instability that sets up convectional currents maintaining a large concentration gradient near the CO2/brine interface, enhancing the dissolution of CO2. This is illustrated in Figure 26.
Maps of the bubble as function of time are shown in Figure 27, where the top of the sand wedge is the controlling seal. In these simulations the dissolution of CO2 is neglected. If dissolution is included the bubble will reach a maximum size after probably less than 300 years. After this time dissolution is the dominating effect on bubble extension and the bubble will gradually shrink and finally disappear after less than 4000 years. This process commonly is called solubility trapping (Section 3.2.3). The primary benefit of solubility trapping is that once CO2 is dissolved, it no longer exists as a separate phase, thereby eliminating the buoyant forces that drive it upwards. Next, it will form ionic species as the rock dissolves, accompanied by a rise in the pH. Finally, some fraction may be converted to stable carbonate minerals (mineral trapping), the most permanent and secure form of geological storage (Gunter et al., 1993). Thus preliminary results suggest that in the long term (> 50 years) the phase behaviour (solubility and density dependence of composition) will become the controlling fluid parameters at Sleipner.
An alternative scenario where Top Utsira Sand (i.e. the top of the sand below the Sand Wedge) is the controlling topography for migration was also simulated. Figure 28 show that the CO2 will follow a more eastern path. This illustrates how sensitive the migration is to small changes in topography. Top Utsira and the top of the sand wedge are only between 14 and 35 m apart and relatively parallel. The top of the sand wedge dips slightly more towards the south west though, resulting in the large differences between distribution patterns. This test is only presented to illustrate the sensitivity of topography because it is quite unlikely that Top Utsira will retain any CO2 on long term because of its permeability.
Upward molecular diffusion of CO2 through the water-saturated overlying shales can potentially represent an escape path for CO2 into the atmosphere. Along this pathway injected CO2 will not reach the sea floor until several hundred thousand years after the end of injection. This escape mechanism can in practice be neglected.
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