Journal of Curriculum and Instruction (JoCI), November 2009, Volume 3, Number 2, (Barbara B. Howard, Precious Guramatunhu-Mudiwa, and Stephen R. White) ______________________________________ http://www.joci.ecu.edu doi:10.3776/joci.2009.v3n2p54-67 54
Spiritual Intelligence and Transformational Leadership:
A New Theoretical Framework
Barbara B. Howard
Precious Guramatunhu-Mudiwa
Stephen R. White
Appalachian State University
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to establish a connection between spiritual intelligence and transformational leadership in an effort to encourage further debate about the legitimacy of spiritual intelligence in educational discourse. In this context we define spiritual intelligence as an interconnected configuration of affective orientations intimately linked to create meaning through connecting ideas, events, and persons rather than to a specific religious tradition or orientation. An exploration of the meaning of transformational leadership in education in K-12 settings provides the basis for the development of a synthesis from a new perspective of two concepts that empower the dispositions of leadership impacting school culture.
The idea of spirituality is increasing in prominence among recent publications in educational psychology and theory (Dent, Higgins, & Wharff, 2005; Edwards, 2003; Emmons, 1999, 2000a, 2000b; Fry, 2003; Fry & Cohen, 2009; Fry & Slocum, 2008; Gardner, 2000; Hyde, 2004; Mayer, 2000; Neiman, 2000; Rogers, 2003; Vaughan, 2002; Yang, 2006; Zohar, 2005). This reflects a shift toward the exploration of spiritual concerns previously submerged by the advent of scientific positivisms and the effort to reduce, if not eradicate, the role of spirituality in education (Bertrand, 2003; Sacks, 1999). This expository narrative addresses the integration of spirituality into educational transformational leadership theory and practice. As such, it lays the theoretical groundwork for further study.
Definition of Spiritual Intelligence
Spiritual intelligence in this context does not refer to a specific religious orientation. It is an interconnected configuration of affective orientations intimately linked to create meaning through connecting ideas, events, and persons (Dent, Higgins, & Wharff, 2005; Fry, 2003). These connections result in both personal and organizational transformations. Spiritual intelligence is further defined as the ability to construct meaning through intuitively seeing interconnectedness between life-world experience and the inner spheres of the individual psyche (Rogers, 2003; Yang, 2006). Tisdell (2003) contends that spirituality is an important part of the human experience, which is fundamental to understanding how individuals construct meaningful knowledge. Tisdell asserts that spirituality has a deep cultural dimension that informs intellectual development. The process of meaning making is manifested in and mediated by cultural Journal of Curriculum and Instruction (JoCI), November 2009, Volume 3, Number 2, (Barbara B. Howard, Precious Guramatunhu-Mudiwa, and Stephen R. White) ______________________________________ http://www.joci.ecu.edu doi:10.3776/joci.2009.v3n2p54-67 55
context. For leaders to facilitate meaning making as a spiritual experience, they must make an empathetic linkage to organizational members’ cultural grounding. In other words, the leader must be able to recognize as well as honor the cultural diversity of the organization in order to create an organizational culture of shared vision (Owens & Valesky, 2007). Tisdell challenges us to construct an educational milieu that celebrates both the cultural differences and the commonalities of the human experience as a spiritual endeavor linked to the constructs of ethics and moral judgment. The challenge today is for the profession to recover its spiritual heritage (Parsons, Fenwick, Parson, English, & Wells, 2002). The driving hypothesis of spiritual intelligence is that it is not dependent upon an organized religious orientation, but rather on the values and ethics of individuals as they contribute to organizational health and wellbeing.
Review of Literature
Emmons (1999) asserts that persons who demonstrate a capacity for heightened consciousness of transcendence possess spiritual intelligence. Spiritual intelligence empowers the individual to cope with and resolve life-world issues while demonstrating virtuous behavior such as humility, compassion, gratitude, and wisdom. Thus, he describes spiritual intelligence as a cognitive ability to envision unrealized possibilities and transcend ordinary consciousness through applying basic thought processes that have both temporal and existential meanings.
Biases against scientific study of constructs such as spirituality may be attributed to lack of precise definitions or a primary focus on associations rather than a focus on underlying mechanisms. A neuroscience perspective provides the necessary framework to encourage rigorous studies of such theoretical constructs by examining the neuropathology of the brain (Cacioppo, Hawkley, Rickett, & Masi, 2005). Persinger (1996) and Ramachandran (1999) independently claim to have discovered the ―God spot‖ within the brain. The "God spot" is an area in the brain that functions like a built-in spiritual center located within neural connections in the temporal lobes. Examinations of various brain scans, taken with positron emission topography, reveal that these neural areas light up whenever subjects are exposed to discussion of spiritual motifs. These scientists are very careful to point out that the ―God spot‖ does not prove the existence of a divine being. Nevertheless, their findings strongly suggest that the brain is wired for cognitive constructs that produce meaning-making reflection. This suggests that humans are naturally predisposed to think in spiritual terms.
Singer and Gray (1995) discovered neural processes in the brain devoted to making interconnections that unify rational, emotional, and spiritual experiences. Prior to Singer and Gray’s findings, the consensus in the scientific community was that the brain’s organization was capable of producing only two neural processes: (a) neurological processes serially connecting neural tracts, allowing the brain to think logically and rationally and (b) neurological processes where thousands of neurons are interconnected in a chaotic mode of massively organized bundles resulting in affective thoughts. Observation of unifying neural oscillations means that a third kind of thinking exists— unitized thinking. The brain unitizes neurological organizations resulting in Journal of Curriculum and Instruction (JoCI), November 2009, Volume 3, Number 2, (Barbara B. Howard, Precious Guramatunhu-Mudiwa, and Stephen R. White) ______________________________________ http://www.joci.ecu.edu doi:10.3776/joci.2009.v3n2p54-67 56
cognitive processes that seek the answer to meaningful questions (Singer, 1999; Singer & Gray, 1995)
Deacon (1997) examined the evolution of symbolic imagination and its role in intellectual development. He proposed that the brain has the ability to construct symbolic imaginative processes resulting in deep reflective thinking about the meaning of life, experiences, and human existence. Zohar and Marshall (2001) defined spiritual intelligence as the intellectual ability to question why we are here and to be creative in our pursuit of answers. Thus, spiritual intelligence involves the cognitive processes resulting in both social modifications and consciousness transformations. Spiritual intelligence is rooted in the human need for understanding the world and our place in it.
Wolman (2001) argued that ―understanding the context and meaning of our actions frees us to make conscious choices rather than enslaving us to respond reflexively to life’s demands‖ (p. 3). Accordingly, developing spiritual intelligence empowers one to articulate ineffable moments that release the psyche’s intrinsic spiritual energy.
An Examination of Transformational Leadership
Since its early days of development, transformational leadership theory has been a mainstay of organizational change based on its tenets of moral and ethical leadership behaviors that encourage the heart rather than control the behaviors (Bass, 1985, 1990, 1997; Burns, 1978; Kouzes & Posner, 2002; Yukl, 1994). Much of the past research and literature on transformational leadership focused on the characteristics of the leaders themselves rather than on the interactions between the leader and his or her followers. These characteristics included charisma, creativity, consideration, sound moral judgment, and ethical decision-making (Friedman, 2004; Fry & Cohen, 2009; Fry & Slocum, 2008; Hyde, 2004; Rogers, 2003; Yang, 2006). Transformational leaders are those who can integrate the desires, beliefs, talents, and core beliefs into the work of an organization based on shared goals and visions (Friedman, 2004).
Morgan (1997) contended that transformational leadership establishes a shared vision, which results in followers exercising their capacity for creative expressions of self, thus exploring their work as a means of self-actualization. Morgan (1997) wrote:
[Transformational] leadership ultimately involves an ability to define the reality of others… He or she spends time listening, summarizing, integrating, and guiding what is being said, making key interventions and summoning images, ideas, and values that help those involved to make sense of the situation with which they are dealing (p. 184).
For any organization to be effective, leaders must be aware of this psyche force and energy to create a shared vision that speaks to the affective side of individuals. Senge, Scharmer, Jaworski, and Flowers (2004) collectively explored the notion of presence within the context of organizational systems’ thinking and the nature of Journal of Curriculum and Instruction (JoCI), No
Journal of Curriculum and Instruction (JoCI), November 2009, Volume 3, Number 2, (Barbara B. Howard, Precious Guramatunhu-Mudiwa, and Stephen R. White) ______________________________________ http://www.joci.ecu.edu doi:10.3776/joci.2009.v3n2p54-67 54
Spiritual Intelligence and Transformational Leadership:
A New Theoretical Framework
Barbara B. Howard
Precious Guramatunhu-Mudiwa
Stephen R. White
Appalachian State University
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to establish a connection between spiritual intelligence and transformational leadership in an effort to encourage further debate about the legitimacy of spiritual intelligence in educational discourse. In this context we define spiritual intelligence as an interconnected configuration of affective orientations intimately linked to create meaning through connecting ideas, events, and persons rather than to a specific religious tradition or orientation. An exploration of the meaning of transformational leadership in education in K-12 settings provides the basis for the development of a synthesis from a new perspective of two concepts that empower the dispositions of leadership impacting school culture.
The idea of spirituality is increasing in prominence among recent publications in educational psychology and theory (Dent, Higgins, & Wharff, 2005; Edwards, 2003; Emmons, 1999, 2000a, 2000b; Fry, 2003; Fry & Cohen, 2009; Fry & Slocum, 2008; Gardner, 2000; Hyde, 2004; Mayer, 2000; Neiman, 2000; Rogers, 2003; Vaughan, 2002; Yang, 2006; Zohar, 2005). This reflects a shift toward the exploration of spiritual concerns previously submerged by the advent of scientific positivisms and the effort to reduce, if not eradicate, the role of spirituality in education (Bertrand, 2003; Sacks, 1999). This expository narrative addresses the integration of spirituality into educational transformational leadership theory and practice. As such, it lays the theoretical groundwork for further study.
Definition of Spiritual Intelligence
Spiritual intelligence in this context does not refer to a specific religious orientation. It is an interconnected configuration of affective orientations intimately linked to create meaning through connecting ideas, events, and persons (Dent, Higgins, & Wharff, 2005; Fry, 2003). These connections result in both personal and organizational transformations. Spiritual intelligence is further defined as the ability to construct meaning through intuitively seeing interconnectedness between life-world experience and the inner spheres of the individual psyche (Rogers, 2003; Yang, 2006). Tisdell (2003) contends that spirituality is an important part of the human experience, which is fundamental to understanding how individuals construct meaningful knowledge. Tisdell asserts that spirituality has a deep cultural dimension that informs intellectual development. The process of meaning making is manifested in and mediated by cultural Journal of Curriculum and Instruction (JoCI), November 2009, Volume 3, Number 2, (Barbara B. Howard, Precious Guramatunhu-Mudiwa, and Stephen R. White) ______________________________________ http://www.joci.ecu.edu doi:10.3776/joci.2009.v3n2p54-67 55
context. For leaders to facilitate meaning making as a spiritual experience, they must make an empathetic linkage to organizational members’ cultural grounding. In other words, the leader must be able to recognize as well as honor the cultural diversity of the organization in order to create an organizational culture of shared vision (Owens & Valesky, 2007). Tisdell challenges us to construct an educational milieu that celebrates both the cultural differences and the commonalities of the human experience as a spiritual endeavor linked to the constructs of ethics and moral judgment. The challenge today is for the profession to recover its spiritual heritage (Parsons, Fenwick, Parson, English, & Wells, 2002). The driving hypothesis of spiritual intelligence is that it is not dependent upon an organized religious orientation, but rather on the values and ethics of individuals as they contribute to organizational health and wellbeing.
Review of Literature
Emmons (1999) asserts that persons who demonstrate a capacity for heightened consciousness of transcendence possess spiritual intelligence. Spiritual intelligence empowers the individual to cope with and resolve life-world issues while demonstrating virtuous behavior such as humility, compassion, gratitude, and wisdom. Thus, he describes spiritual intelligence as a cognitive ability to envision unrealized possibilities and transcend ordinary consciousness through applying basic thought processes that have both temporal and existential meanings.
Biases against scientific study of constructs such as spirituality may be attributed to lack of precise definitions or a primary focus on associations rather than a focus on underlying mechanisms. A neuroscience perspective provides the necessary framework to encourage rigorous studies of such theoretical constructs by examining the neuropathology of the brain (Cacioppo, Hawkley, Rickett, & Masi, 2005). Persinger (1996) and Ramachandran (1999) independently claim to have discovered the ―God spot‖ within the brain. The "God spot" is an area in the brain that functions like a built-in spiritual center located within neural connections in the temporal lobes. Examinations of various brain scans, taken with positron emission topography, reveal that these neural areas light up whenever subjects are exposed to discussion of spiritual motifs. These scientists are very careful to point out that the ―God spot‖ does not prove the existence of a divine being. Nevertheless, their findings strongly suggest that the brain is wired for cognitive constructs that produce meaning-making reflection. This suggests that humans are naturally predisposed to think in spiritual terms.
Singer and Gray (1995) discovered neural processes in the brain devoted to making interconnections that unify rational, emotional, and spiritual experiences. Prior to Singer and Gray’s findings, the consensus in the scientific community was that the brain’s organization was capable of producing only two neural processes: (a) neurological processes serially connecting neural tracts, allowing the brain to think logically and rationally and (b) neurological processes where thousands of neurons are interconnected in a chaotic mode of massively organized bundles resulting in affective thoughts. Observation of unifying neural oscillations means that a third kind of thinking exists— unitized thinking. The brain unitizes neurological organizations resulting in Journal of Curriculum and Instruction (JoCI), November 2009, Volume 3, Number 2, (Barbara B. Howard, Precious Guramatunhu-Mudiwa, and Stephen R. White) ______________________________________ http://www.joci.ecu.edu doi:10.3776/joci.2009.v3n2p54-67 56
cognitive processes that seek the answer to meaningful questions (Singer, 1999; Singer & Gray, 1995)
Deacon (1997) examined the evolution of symbolic imagination and its role in intellectual development. He proposed that the brain has the ability to construct symbolic imaginative processes resulting in deep reflective thinking about the meaning of life, experiences, and human existence. Zohar and Marshall (2001) defined spiritual intelligence as the intellectual ability to question why we are here and to be creative in our pursuit of answers. Thus, spiritual intelligence involves the cognitive processes resulting in both social modifications and consciousness transformations. Spiritual intelligence is rooted in the human need for understanding the world and our place in it.
Wolman (2001) argued that ―understanding the context and meaning of our actions frees us to make conscious choices rather than enslaving us to respond reflexively to life’s demands‖ (p. 3). Accordingly, developing spiritual intelligence empowers one to articulate ineffable moments that release the psyche’s intrinsic spiritual energy.
An Examination of Transformational Leadership
Since its early days of development, transformational leadership theory has been a mainstay of organizational change based on its tenets of moral and ethical leadership behaviors that encourage the heart rather than control the behaviors (Bass, 1985, 1990, 1997; Burns, 1978; Kouzes & Posner, 2002; Yukl, 1994). Much of the past research and literature on transformational leadership focused on the characteristics of the leaders themselves rather than on the interactions between the leader and his or her followers. These characteristics included charisma, creativity, consideration, sound moral judgment, and ethical decision-making (Friedman, 2004; Fry & Cohen, 2009; Fry & Slocum, 2008; Hyde, 2004; Rogers, 2003; Yang, 2006). Transformational leaders are those who can integrate the desires, beliefs, talents, and core beliefs into the work of an organization based on shared goals and visions (Friedman, 2004).
Morgan (1997) contended that transformational leadership establishes a shared vision, which results in followers exercising their capacity for creative expressions of self, thus exploring their work as a means of self-actualization. Morgan (1997) wrote:
[Transformational] leadership ultimately involves an ability to define the reality of others… He or she spends time listening, summarizing, integrating, and guiding what is being said, making key interventions and summoning images, ideas, and values that help those involved to make sense of the situation with which they are dealing (p. 184).
For any organization to be effective, leaders must be aware of this psyche force and energy to create a shared vision that speaks to the affective side of individuals. Senge, Scharmer, Jaworski, and Flowers (2004) collectively explored the notion of presence within the context of organizational systems’ thinking and the nature of Journal of Curriculum and Instruction (JoCI), No
การแปล กรุณารอสักครู่..