Discussion
Development Status of Country
The development status of a country was statistically significant,
but of relatively low importance in determining
positive attitudes toward damage causingwildlife (Fig. 3).
This suggests that while stakeholder group, question
type, and species group mostly explained positive attitudes,
the development status of a country did explain
some positive attitudes. Since differences between developed
and developing countries are often related to
wealth, health services, education, and institutional infrastructure,
research explaining the factors determining
these differences will assist in designing more effective
species management policies and strategies.
Tolerance of Damage
Respondents’ tolerance to damage from ungulates and
primates was proportional to the probability of experiencing
damage (Fig. 2), but they presented lower tolerance
toward carnivores and higher tolerance toward
elephants. Our damage variable measured whether a respondent
experienced damage or not and did not account
for the severity or financial costs accruing to
stakeholders, meaning stakeholders may have experienced
more severe damage from carnivores than from
elephants, ungulates, or primates. Alternatively, livestock
may have intangible values that were not documented,
meaning any loss due to carnivores would be substantial.
It is possible that the small number of elephant studies
may not be representative of the full range of attitudes
and that alternatively, similar trends to those of the carnivores.
If, however, these differences are accurate, the
reason may be due to a more positive cultural symbolism
of elephants (Kuriyan 2002) relative to carnivores (West
2001; Dickman 2008; Lewis-Williams & Challis 2011),
perhaps given the long history of carnivores preying on
humans (Kruuk 2002).
Our TDI presented no significant differences between
stakeholder types or between developed and developing
countries. However, because our TDI did not take into
account the severity of damage or its frequency or rate
over time, differences may be masked by these factors.
A damage measure that accounts for these additional dimensions
would be valuable for constructing tolerance
indexes in the future.
Until comparative data is available that uses comparable
measures of attitudes as well as tangible and intangible
costs and benefits, explaining differences between
species groups and the lack of differences between stakeholder
groups and between developed and developing
countries is problematic. Differences between species
groups is likely given the human propensity to value animal
species unequally (Bonnet et al. 2002; Serpell 2004;
Stokes 2007) and the wide range of reasons potentially
explaining this heterogeneity (organismal complexity:
Proenca et al. 2008; morphological and behavioral similarity
to humans: Batt 2009; size, rarity, charisma: Johnson
et al. 2010; attractiveness: Frynta et al. 2010). These differences
could have important implications for managing
species in general andHWCin particular,meaning knowledge
of differences in human behavior should inform the
design of interventions, strategies, and policies (Knight
et al. 2010). It is likely that context-specific species management
approaches will be required.
Importance of Damage
Damage was an important factor explaining positive attitudes
toward wildlife; however, stakeholder group, question
type, and species group were either equally or more
important (Figs. 3a & b). Nonpositive attitudes were
presented by 39% of stakeholders who experienced no
damage. These findings support the results of similar
research where damage was not significant in explaining
attitudes toward a species in 61% of publications
(R.K. unpublished data). They are also consistent with
results of other research highlighting the importance of
nondamage factors (Naughton-Treves et al. 2003; Skogen
& Krange 2003; Dickman 2010; Shelly et al. 2011).
Damage interacted with different stakeholders (i.e.,
commercial farmer, communal farmers, and urban residents)
and species groups (i.e., carnivores, ungulates,
primates, and elephants) in complex and unexpected
ways, as revealed by the CART analyses (Figs. 4 & 6).
For example, damage did not explain attitudes of all
stakeholder groups toward carnivores (Fig. 4) or attitudes
of commercial farmers or communal farmers toward ungulates,
primates, or elephants (Fig. 4). Damage was
however important for urban residents and a subset of
communal farmers. Urban residents displayed intuitively
meaningful responses toward ungulates, primates, and
elephants (i.e., positive attitudes in cases exhibiting a low
probability of damage and nonpositive attitudes where
the probability of damage was high) (Fig. 4). However,
for a subset of communal farmers the relationship with
some carnivore species was unanticipated. Those who
experienced a high probability of damage displayed more
positive attitudes, while those with a low probability of
experiencing damage were more nonpositive (Fig. 6).
Because of this complexity, identifying the contexts in
which damage drives attitudes and human tolerance is
essential because HWC mitigation strategies typically assume
damage to be the causal factor (Hulme & Murphee
1999; Distefano 2003; Dickman 2010). If damage is not a
driver of specific stakeholders’ attitudes toward species,
then mitigating damage may offer a low return on investment
of typically scarce conservation funds. Identifying
the costs and benefits of species important to stakeholder
groups is an important future research direction
because damage may also fail to predict attitudes in cases
where the additional costs and effort of implementing
mitigation measures causes increased resentment toward
species. A more holistic approach that considers both
tangible and intangible costs and benefits of living with
wildlife may be more effective at determining the role of
damage in explaining an individual’s attitude toward individual
animals and groups of species. Such an approach
could promote the development and implementation of
spatially extensive policies and strategies, which could
prove more effective than the site and species-specific
approaches currently employed.
Stakeholders’ Attitudes toward Species Groups
Although communal farmers were twice as likely as other
stakeholders to have nonpositive attitudes, this was not
uniform for all species and damage probabilities (Figs. 4
& 6). Communal farmers were more positive toward elephants,
ungulates, and primates and less positive toward
carnivores, irrespective of probability of experiencing
damage and of question type (Fig. 4). However, a subset
of communal farmers living in proximity to a subset of
carnivore species were counter intuitively more positive
when there was a large probability of undergoing damage
than when there was a low probability of damage (Fig. 6).
This suggests that at least some communal farmers are
able to adapt to living with damage causing wildlife. Because
adaptation is a general human propensity (Arieli
2010), we wondered why urban residents do not adapt
as well; urban residents were less likely to be positive
when probabilities of damage from ungulates, elephants,
and primates were high (Fig. 4). Fifty-seven percent of
communal farmers in the high damage probability category
were from developing Asian countries, while 24% in
the low damage probability category were from Africa.
Eastern religions may predispose people to be more sympathetic
toward wildlife, in general (Waldau & Patton
2006; Manfredo 2008), and to damage causing wildlife in
particular. For example, people in Nepal view damage by
the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) as punishment from
a mountain god, which shifts blame from the species (Ale
1998).
Urban residents and commercial farmers tend to be
neutral or slightly more positive toward most carnivores,
except coyote (Fig. 6), while communal farmers are typically
less positive (Fig. 4) (except in the cases of Asian
stakeholders outlined above [Fig. 6]). For urban residents,
these differences could be explained by urban residents
being exposed to carnivore species that have a lower
impact on their livelihood and lives or by their general
tolerance of wildlife (i.e., mutualistic wildlife value orientations
[Manfredo 2008]). Mutualistic wildlife value orientations
are associated with urbanization and modernization,
where a reduction in the association of wildlife
as a food source and an increase in wildlife as deserving
of equal rights to humans are thought to result in higher
tolerance (Manfredo 2008). For example, Williams et al.
(2002) reported that urban residents (61%) had more positive
attitudes toward wolves than rural residents (45%)
and farmers (35%). However, because these studies did
not differentiate between stakeholders within each group
who experienced direct conflict and those that did not,
it was not possible to determine if urban residents would
retain their mutualistic value orientations when experiencing
more extensive damage. Our finding that the
positive attitudes displayed by urban residents did not extend
to ungulates in communities where the probability
of damage was high, in addition to the TDI not indicating
a higher overall tolerance of damage by urban residents
(Fig. 2), suggests that urban residents’ mutualistic value
orientations may diminish above a certain threshold of
damage.
Communal farmers were the least positive toward carnivores
(Figs. 4 & 6), possibly because livestock contribute
substantially more to their well-being or have
high cultural value. In developing countries, rural communities
may have little access to credit, so livestock
represent an investment or safety net that provides a
diverse range of functions and benefits to owners and
to the community at large (Andrew et al. 2003). Where
stock numbers are small, or where privatization of communal
lands has resulted in smaller, less viable parcels of
land for livestock farming
DiscussionDevelopment Status of CountryThe development status of a country was statistically significant,but of relatively low importance in determiningpositive attitudes toward damage causingwildlife (Fig. 3).This suggests that while stakeholder group, questiontype, and species group mostly explained positive attitudes,the development status of a country did explainsome positive attitudes. Since differences between developedand developing countries are often related towealth, health services, education, and institutional infrastructure,research explaining the factors determiningthese differences will assist in designing more effectivespecies management policies and strategies.Tolerance of DamageRespondents’ tolerance to damage from ungulates andprimates was proportional to the probability of experiencingdamage (Fig. 2), but they presented lower tolerancetoward carnivores and higher tolerance towardelephants. Our damage variable measured whether a respondentexperienced damage or not and did not accountfor the severity or financial costs accruing tostakeholders, meaning stakeholders may have experiencedmore severe damage from carnivores than fromelephants, ungulates, or primates. Alternatively, livestockmay have intangible values that were not documented,meaning any loss due to carnivores would be substantial.It is possible that the small number of elephant studiesmay not be representative of the full range of attitudesและที่ แนวโน้มคล้ายกับ carnivores การถ้า อย่างไรก็ตาม ความแตกต่างเหล่านี้ถูกต้อง การเหตุผลอาจเนื่องจากสัญลักษณ์ทางวัฒนธรรมเป็นบวกมากขึ้นช้าง (Kuriyan 2002) สัมพันธ์ carnivores ตก2001 Dickman 2008 Lewis-Williams และ Challis 2011),บางทีให้นาน carnivores preying บนมนุษย์ (Kruuk 2002)TDI ของเรานำเสนอไม่มีความแตกต่างอย่างมีนัยสำคัญระหว่างประเภทของทรรศนะหรือ ระหว่างการพัฒนา และการประเทศ อย่างไรก็ตาม เนื่องจาก TDI ของเราไม่ได้เอาลงบัญชีความรุนแรงของความเสียหาย หรือความถี่ หรืออัตราเวลา ความแตกต่างอาจสวมหน้ากาก โดยปัจจัยเหล่านี้ความเสียหายวัดที่บัญชีสำหรับมิติเหล่านี้เพิ่มเติมจะเป็นประโยชน์สำหรับการสร้างการยอมรับดัชนีในอนาคตจนกว่ามีข้อมูลเปรียบเทียบ ที่ใช้เปรียบเทียบได้วัดทัศนคติรวมทั้งมีตัวตนและไม่มีตัวตนต้นทุนและผลประโยชน์ การอธิบายความแตกต่างระหว่างกลุ่มพันธุ์และไม่มีความแตกต่างระหว่างผู้กลุ่ม และระหว่างพัฒนา และการพัฒนาประเทศมีปัญหา ความแตกต่างระหว่างสายพันธุ์กลุ่มมีแนวโน้มจะได้รับสิ่งมนุษย์กับสัตว์ค่าพันธุ์ unequally (บาสเตียบอนเนต์ et al. 2002 Serpell 2004สโตกส์ 2007) และเหตุผลหลากหลายอาจอธิบายนี้ heterogeneity (ซับซ้อน organismal:Proenca et al. 2008 สัณฐาน และพฤติกรรมคล้ายคลึงกับมนุษย์: สูงสุด 2009 ขนาด สังข์ คาริสม่า: Johnsonร้อยเอ็ด al. 2010 ศิลปะ: Frynta et al. 2010) ความแตกต่างเหล่านี้มีนัยสำคัญในการจัดการสปีชีส์ในความรู้ความหมายเฉพาะ andHWCin ทั่วไปของความแตกต่างในพฤติกรรมมนุษย์ควรแจ้งออกแบบงานวิจัย นโยบาย และกลยุทธ์ (อัศวินร้อยเอ็ด al. 2010) จึงมีแนวโน้มที่จัดการบริบทเฉพาะพันธุ์แนวทางจะต้องความสำคัญของความเสียหายความเสียหายเป็นตัวแปรสำคัญที่อธิบายทัศนคติบวกต่อสัตว์ป่า อย่างไรก็ตาม มาตรการกลุ่ม คำถามชนิด และกลุ่มพันธุ์ถูกเท่า ๆ กัน หรือมากกว่าสำคัญ (Figs. 3a & b) ทัศนคติ nonpositive ได้นำเสนอ โดย 39% ของเสียที่ไม่มีประสบการณ์ความเสียหาย ผลการวิจัยนี้สนับสนุนผลคล้ายกันวิจัยที่หายไม่สำคัญในการอธิบายเจตคติชนิด 61% ของสิ่งพิมพ์(อาร์เคยกเลิกประกาศข้อมูล) พวกเขายังมีความสอดคล้องกับผลการวิจัยอื่น ๆ เน้นความสำคัญของปัจจัย nondamage (นอตัน Treves et al. 2003 Skogenและ Krange 2003 Dickman 2010 Shelly et al. 2011)ความเสียหายอาจ มีเสียแตกต่างกัน (เช่นเกษตรกรเชิงพาณิชย์ เกษตรกรชุมชน และคน)และกลุ่มพันธุ์ (เช่น carnivores, ungulatesprimates และช้าง) ซับซ้อน และไม่คาดคิดวิธี เป็นที่เปิดเผยโดยวิเคราะห์รถเข็น (Figs. 4 และ 6)ตัวอย่าง ความเสียหายไม่ได้อธิบายทัศนคติของทั้งหมดมาตรการกลุ่ม carnivores (Fig. 4) หรือทัศนคติof commercial farmers or communal farmers toward ungulates,primates, or elephants (Fig. 4). Damage washowever important for urban residents and a subset ofcommunal farmers. Urban residents displayed intuitivelymeaningful responses toward ungulates, primates, andelephants (i.e., positive attitudes in cases exhibiting a lowprobability of damage and nonpositive attitudes wherethe probability of damage was high) (Fig. 4). However,for a subset of communal farmers the relationship withsome carnivore species was unanticipated. Those whoexperienced a high probability of damage displayed morepositive attitudes, while those with a low probability ofexperiencing damage were more nonpositive (Fig. 6).Because of this complexity, identifying the contexts inwhich damage drives attitudes and human tolerance isessential because HWC mitigation strategies typically assumedamage to be the causal factor (Hulme & Murphee1999; Distefano 2003; Dickman 2010). If damage is not adriver of specific stakeholders’ attitudes toward species,then mitigating damage may offer a low return on investmentof typically scarce conservation funds. Identifyingthe costs and benefits of species important to stakeholdergroups is an important future research directionbecause damage may also fail to predict attitudes in caseswhere the additional costs and effort of implementingmitigation measures causes increased resentment towardspecies. A more holistic approach that considers bothtangible and intangible costs and benefits of living withwildlife may be more effective at determining the role ofdamage in explaining an individual’s attitude toward individualanimals and groups of species. Such an approachcould promote the development and implementation ofspatially extensive policies and strategies, which couldprove more effective than the site and species-specificapproaches currently employed.Stakeholders’ Attitudes toward Species GroupsAlthough communal farmers were twice as likely as otherstakeholders to have nonpositive attitudes, this was notuniform for all species and damage probabilities (Figs. 4& 6). Communal farmers were more positive toward elephants,ungulates, and primates and less positive towardcarnivores, irrespective of probability of experiencingdamage and of question type (Fig. 4). However, a subsetof communal farmers living in proximity to a subset ofcarnivore species were counter intuitively more positivewhen there was a large probability of undergoing damagethan when there was a low probability of damage (Fig. 6).This suggests that at least some communal farmers areable to adapt to living with damage causing wildlife. Becauseadaptation is a general human propensity (Arieli2010), we wondered why urban residents do not adaptas well; urban residents were less likely to be positivewhen probabilities of damage from ungulates, elephants,and primates were high (Fig. 4). Fifty-seven percent of
communal farmers in the high damage probability category
were from developing Asian countries, while 24% in
the low damage probability category were from Africa.
Eastern religions may predispose people to be more sympathetic
toward wildlife, in general (Waldau & Patton
2006; Manfredo 2008), and to damage causing wildlife in
particular. For example, people in Nepal view damage by
the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) as punishment from
a mountain god, which shifts blame from the species (Ale
1998).
Urban residents and commercial farmers tend to be
neutral or slightly more positive toward most carnivores,
except coyote (Fig. 6), while communal farmers are typically
less positive (Fig. 4) (except in the cases of Asian
stakeholders outlined above [Fig. 6]). For urban residents,
these differences could be explained by urban residents
being exposed to carnivore species that have a lower
impact on their livelihood and lives or by their general
tolerance of wildlife (i.e., mutualistic wildlife value orientations
[Manfredo 2008]). Mutualistic wildlife value orientations
are associated with urbanization and modernization,
where a reduction in the association of wildlife
as a food source and an increase in wildlife as deserving
of equal rights to humans are thought to result in higher
tolerance (Manfredo 2008). For example, Williams et al.
(2002) reported that urban residents (61%) had more positive
attitudes toward wolves than rural residents (45%)
and farmers (35%). However, because these studies did
not differentiate between stakeholders within each group
who experienced direct conflict and those that did not,
it was not possible to determine if urban residents would
retain their mutualistic value orientations when experiencing
more extensive damage. Our finding that the
positive attitudes displayed by urban residents did not extend
to ungulates in communities where the probability
of damage was high, in addition to the TDI not indicating
a higher overall tolerance of damage by urban residents
(Fig. 2), suggests that urban residents’ mutualistic value
orientations may diminish above a certain threshold of
damage.
Communal farmers were the least positive toward carnivores
(Figs. 4 & 6), possibly because livestock contribute
substantially more to their well-being or have
high cultural value. In developing countries, rural communities
may have little access to credit, so livestock
represent an investment or safety net that provides a
diverse range of functions and benefits to owners and
to the community at large (Andrew et al. 2003). Where
stock numbers are small, or where privatization of communal
lands has resulted in smaller, less viable parcels of
land for livestock farming
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