We do not wish to give the impression that we regard ‘improvement’ in this context as being derivable solely from a larger input of analysis. Issue definition is a stage in the policy process at which there is a particularly strong case for wider participation by those in a position to say whether there is a problem and, if so, what they see the problem as being. In practice, opportunities for participation tend to be provided, if at all, only at the later stages the policy process, such as commenting on ‘options’ provided by officials. By then most real choices will have been foreclosed, whereas an opportunityto participate in how the problem was defined would have opened up a much wider range of possibilities. It is, of course, disconcerting for a local authority or central department to discover that those citizens most directly affected do not agree with the ‘experts’ about the nature of the problem. They may even deny that there is a problem or argue that there are much more important or pressing problems. Worst of all, they may suggest that ‘the real problem’ is the local council or government department itself! These strike us, however, as excellent