1. Species: fir is the most frequently selected and
heavily damaged species, wherever it grows, as verified
by many authors (Mattedi 1986; Adamic 1990;
König & Baumann 1990; Motta 1993; Koubek & Homolka
1995; Ammer 1996; Reimoser 1998; Homolka
& Matous 1999; Meier et al. 2000). Spruce and beech
saplings are more or less damaged by ungulates, according
to other factors.