8.3.7 Calibration of a local reservoir model by use of repeated 3D seismic Reservoir modell - The SACS project graphically illustrates how useful repeated 3D seismic surveys can be to calibrate a local reservoir model. Data from pre-injection seismic, well-logs
and petrophysical data obtained from laboratory experiments and core analysis were used to
build the original local reservoir model of the Utsira Sand (the reservoir formation) near the injection well. However, because the injection well is a near-horizontal well drilled from the Sleipner A platform it did not provide good 3D data on the nature of the whole thickness of the Utsira Sand reservoir at the injection point. Furthermore there are no other wells in the immediate vicinity of the injection site. The majority of the data used to construct the model was obtained from wells which passed through the Utsira Sand beneath, or very close to, the Sleipner A platform, some 3 km from the injection site. At the injection site the Utsira Sand was interpreted to consist of a highly permeable sand body more than 200 m thick intersected by thin horizontal discontinuous shale layers.
CO2 is injected close to the bottom of the formation. The shale layers are interpreted to impede its vertical migration and cause the entrapment of the CO2 in large, near-horizontal
'bubbles' within the porous medium of the sand. The barrier layers are either semi-permeable, or have localized spill areas that allow migration of CO2 to the consecutive barrier layers above. The discontinuity and heterogeneity of these shale layers are thought to cause the CO2 to be transported in distinct chimney-like columns that are imaged on the repeat seismic surveys.
Only the two upper shale horizons could be mapped from pre-injection seismic i.e. the cap seal of the formation and a shale approximately 15 m below the cap (the sand between these two shales is commonly referred to within the SACS project as the 'Sand Wedge'). The other shales were too thin to be mapped from the seismic and were located from the 1999 time- lapse seismic data where the major seismic reflectors were interpreted as CO2 bubbles being retained by the shales. The shale layers were represented in the model by transmissibility modifiers attributed to layers that correspond to those detected by the seismic survey.
Reservoir simulation incorporates the predominant driving mechanisms that control the migration of CO2. The model is calibrated by modifying various parameters to achieve history matching and the history-matched model is ultimately adopted to make future predictions. The transmissibility of each shale and the chimney-creating conduits were obtained by adjusting the transmissibility multipliers so that the resulting accumulations under the layers became similar in size to the corresponding seismic reflector. This is an iterative process that is still continuing.
Thus the SACS local reservoir model has demonstrated that if a well does not exist at, or very close to, the injection site, as at Sleipner, the initial calibration of the physical conditions and reservoir model may not be ideal. However, if good quality 4D seismic data is available, the
reservoir simulation can still be history matched to the seismic interpretation.
Fluid and transport properties - Given a hydrostatic pressure gradient, in a thick reservoir such as the Utsira Sand the temperature gradient is the most important parameter that has to be taken into account if fluid properties are to be modelled correctly. Thus it was recommended that careful temperature and pressure measurements are made in the reservoir in future CO2-injection projects. The CO2 density in particular will be erroneous if these gradients are not correctly accounted for.
In the Utsira Sand, the temperature is thought to vary from about 29°C to 37°C from the top of the formation about 800 m below mean sea level to the injection point at 1040 m depth. The pressure increases downwards through the formation and temperature and pressure have opposite effects on the density, so in practice the density is relatively constant down through
the reservoir, at about 700 kg/m3 corresponding to a CO viscosity of about 0.06 mPa s.
Free CO2 in both liquid or gas phase will give strong reflections on seismic because of the strong contrast in velocity of sound between CO2 and brine. CO2 dissolved in brine will, however, not be visible on seismic because CO2 saturated brine will have approximately the same velocity of sound as under-saturated brine.
The solubility of CO in brine at the Utsira conditions is approximately 53 kg/m3. Dissolved
CO2 could therefore potentially be a significant contribution to CO2 storage in this aquifer, e.g.
all of the CO injected in this project (1.7•106Sm3/d) for 25 years would dissolve in a brine
“cylindrical” pore volume 1300 m in radius and 200 m tall. In the CO2 plume above the injection point some water will be contacted by CO2 during migration up through the formation. The shales will spread the CO2 over a large area. This will increase the surface of the CO2 phase and increase dissolution. In practice, however, the amount CO2 dissolved during the injection period will be limited because only a small fraction of the brine will be contacted by CO2. Although the geophysical interpretation of the seismic is non-unique, iteration between the geophysical interpretation of the seismic reflections attributed to the injected CO2 and the reservoir simulations showed that good matches between observed and simulated bubble areas could be achieved even if CO2 solubility was completely neglected. From this it can also be concluded that the shale layers do not disperse large amounts of CO2 into small leak streams when it is transported from layer to layer. The CO2 transport must rather be concentrated at localised spill points, curtains, or holes.
8.3.7 Calibration of a local reservoir model by use of repeated 3D seismic Reservoir modell - The SACS project graphically illustrates how useful repeated 3D seismic surveys can be to calibrate a local reservoir model. Data from pre-injection seismic, well-logs
and petrophysical data obtained from laboratory experiments and core analysis were used to
build the original local reservoir model of the Utsira Sand (the reservoir formation) near the injection well. However, because the injection well is a near-horizontal well drilled from the Sleipner A platform it did not provide good 3D data on the nature of the whole thickness of the Utsira Sand reservoir at the injection point. Furthermore there are no other wells in the immediate vicinity of the injection site. The majority of the data used to construct the model was obtained from wells which passed through the Utsira Sand beneath, or very close to, the Sleipner A platform, some 3 km from the injection site. At the injection site the Utsira Sand was interpreted to consist of a highly permeable sand body more than 200 m thick intersected by thin horizontal discontinuous shale layers.
CO2 is injected close to the bottom of the formation. The shale layers are interpreted to impede its vertical migration and cause the entrapment of the CO2 in large, near-horizontal
'bubbles' within the porous medium of the sand. The barrier layers are either semi-permeable, or have localized spill areas that allow migration of CO2 to the consecutive barrier layers above. The discontinuity and heterogeneity of these shale layers are thought to cause the CO2 to be transported in distinct chimney-like columns that are imaged on the repeat seismic surveys.
Only the two upper shale horizons could be mapped from pre-injection seismic i.e. the cap seal of the formation and a shale approximately 15 m below the cap (the sand between these two shales is commonly referred to within the SACS project as the 'Sand Wedge'). The other shales were too thin to be mapped from the seismic and were located from the 1999 time- lapse seismic data where the major seismic reflectors were interpreted as CO2 bubbles being retained by the shales. The shale layers were represented in the model by transmissibility modifiers attributed to layers that correspond to those detected by the seismic survey.
Reservoir simulation incorporates the predominant driving mechanisms that control the migration of CO2. The model is calibrated by modifying various parameters to achieve history matching and the history-matched model is ultimately adopted to make future predictions. The transmissibility of each shale and the chimney-creating conduits were obtained by adjusting the transmissibility multipliers so that the resulting accumulations under the layers became similar in size to the corresponding seismic reflector. This is an iterative process that is still continuing.
Thus the SACS local reservoir model has demonstrated that if a well does not exist at, or very close to, the injection site, as at Sleipner, the initial calibration of the physical conditions and reservoir model may not be ideal. However, if good quality 4D seismic data is available, the
reservoir simulation can still be history matched to the seismic interpretation.
Fluid and transport properties - Given a hydrostatic pressure gradient, in a thick reservoir such as the Utsira Sand the temperature gradient is the most important parameter that has to be taken into account if fluid properties are to be modelled correctly. Thus it was recommended that careful temperature and pressure measurements are made in the reservoir in future CO2-injection projects. The CO2 density in particular will be erroneous if these gradients are not correctly accounted for.
In the Utsira Sand, the temperature is thought to vary from about 29°C to 37°C from the top of the formation about 800 m below mean sea level to the injection point at 1040 m depth. The pressure increases downwards through the formation and temperature and pressure have opposite effects on the density, so in practice the density is relatively constant down through
the reservoir, at about 700 kg/m3 corresponding to a CO viscosity of about 0.06 mPa s.
Free CO2 in both liquid or gas phase will give strong reflections on seismic because of the strong contrast in velocity of sound between CO2 and brine. CO2 dissolved in brine will, however, not be visible on seismic because CO2 saturated brine will have approximately the same velocity of sound as under-saturated brine.
The solubility of CO in brine at the Utsira conditions is approximately 53 kg/m3. Dissolved
CO2 could therefore potentially be a significant contribution to CO2 storage in this aquifer, e.g.
all of the CO injected in this project (1.7•106Sm3/d) for 25 years would dissolve in a brine
“cylindrical” pore volume 1300 m in radius and 200 m tall. In the CO2 plume above the injection point some water will be contacted by CO2 during migration up through the formation. The shales will spread the CO2 over a large area. This will increase the surface of the CO2 phase and increase dissolution. In practice, however, the amount CO2 dissolved during the injection period will be limited because only a small fraction of the brine will be contacted by CO2. Although the geophysical interpretation of the seismic is non-unique, iteration between the geophysical interpretation of the seismic reflections attributed to the injected CO2 and the reservoir simulations showed that good matches between observed and simulated bubble areas could be achieved even if CO2 solubility was completely neglected. From this it can also be concluded that the shale layers do not disperse large amounts of CO2 into small leak streams when it is transported from layer to layer. The CO2 transport must rather be concentrated at localised spill points, curtains, or holes.
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