The results from this study clearly show that Chinese and U.S. students prefer to use different types of solution
representations. In particular, the mean score for using symbolic representations for Chinese students is significantly
higher than that of the U.S. students; whereas the mean score of using visual drawings (pictorial representations)
for U.S. students is significantly higher than that of the Chinese students. The results from the correlation analyses
showed that for both samples, students’ use of symbolic representations has a strong association with their performance
on computation, simple problem solving, and non-routine problem solving. This finding is consistent with Cai and
Hwang’s (2002) finding and it suggests the value of using symbolic representations to improve students’ learning of
mathematics.
The analyses of the videotaped Chinese and U.S. lessons showed a strong correlation between students’ use of
solution representations and teachers’ use of pedagogical representations. Teachers in U.S. classrooms were much
more likely to use concrete visual representations than teachers in Chinese classrooms. This finding suggests that U.S.
teachers less frequently encourage students at this grade level to move to more abstract, conventional representations
and strategies in their classroom instruction. One of the common misconceptions held by many U.S. teachers is that
concrete representations or manipulatives are the basis for all learning since they believe that concrete representations
or manipulatives can facilitate students’ conceptual understanding (Burrill, 1997). However, research has shown that
manipulatives or concrete representations do not guarantee students’ conceptual understanding (e.g., Baroody, 1990).
The purpose of using concrete, visual representations is to mediate students’ conceptual understanding of the abstract
nature of mathematics, but concrete experiences do not automatically lead to generalization and conceptual understanding.
Unfortunately, the U.S. teacher whose lessons we videotaped made no attempt to help students make the
transition from concrete, visual representations to symbolic representations.