Methods
Participants were included in this double-blind RCT if they
(1) were between 40 and 80 years, (2) sustained a single
ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke 6 to 60 months previously,
(3) scored 3 to 6/7 on the Chedoke-McMaster Stroke
Assessment19 arm subscale, and (4) had no other neurologic
or neuromuscular/orthopedic problems affecting the
upper limb and trunk. Individuals were excluded if they
had (1) brainstem/cerebellar lesions, (2) comprehension
difficulties, and (3) marked apraxia, attention, or visual
field deficits. Participants signed informed consent forms
approved by the institutional review board of the Center
for Interdisciplinary Research in Rehabilitation of Greater
Montréal.
Participants were stratified at baseline by severity (Fugl-
Meyer Stroke Assessment Upper Limb [FMA] score ±5
points)20 and age (±5 years) and block randomized to VE or
PE training groups. Randomization, clinical evaluations,
training, and data analysis were done by different individuals
uninvolved with and blinded to other study aspects.