The general rationale for intentional vocabulary learning is grounded in Schmidt’s (1990) noticing hypothesis,
which states that noticing is the necessary condition for second language acquisition. As applied to lexical
development, language learners must consciously notice L2 features in the input and pay deliberate attention to
form-meaning connections of vocabulary items to optimize L2 learning. It is for this reason that vocabulary is
commonly taught explicitly and directly in foreign language classrooms to compensate for the limited exposure
and resources that may otherwise be available. However, Nation (2011) cautioned against over application of
explicit vocabulary instruction with teacher-imposed vocabulary exercises. Among various vocabulary learning
techniques, he particularly advocated that teachers should guide their students to make use of word cards in
learner-centered ways. As he argued, “Well directed deliberate vocabulary learning using word cards is very
effective and much more efficient than teaching and vocabulary exercises” (p. 536).
Word cards are a set of double-sided cards designed for direct learning of vocabulary that allow learners to practice
form-to-meaning and meaning-to-form recall in repeated retrieval of L2 words, by flipping the front and back sides
of the cards. Given how they are used, word cards are also called flashcards, and may vary in form, ranging from
printed to digital versions. While word cards or flashcards have long been used in language classrooms, the recent