The problem and the solution. In light of research suggesting significant
links between social support and human resource outcomes,
managers have become increasingly concerned with how to develop
social support. One solution is to examine the experiences of a group
of employees with extremely high work–life integration, same-career
couples, to develop lessons for human resource development. Samecareer
couples are employees who work in the same workplace or in
the same occupation as their partner. From their experiences and
research concerning social support resources in organizations, the
authors suggest mechanisms to develop social support with the intention
of improving human resource outcomes.
Keywords: social support; work–life integration; Conservation of Resources;
same-career couples
Shifting demographics have led to a greater number of dual-career couples
during the past 50 years and a significant change in our understanding of work–life
integration (Brett, Stroh, & Reilly, 1992). Although the notion of a dual-career
couple has been recognized and studied for many years, the concept of marital
working status is relatively new. Martial working status refers to the nature of
the work performed by one’s spouse or partner. Of particular interest for the
present article are those employees who work in the same workplace or in the
same occupation as their partner (called a same-career couple). The early literature
suggests that this situation applies to between 19% and 40% of the population
(Halbesleben, Zellars, Carlson, Rotondo, & Perrewé, 2005; Moen &
Sweet, 2002); there may be certain workplaces (e.g., Dupont; Wolkenbreit,
1997) or occupations (e.g., university settings) where same-career couples are
more prominent because of support for same-career relationships and other
related family-friendly work policies (Thompson, Beauvais, & Lyness, 1999).
Although relatively new, recent research suggests that there are benefits to these
relationships for the employees involved, primarily from the high degree of
work–life integration demanded in their situation (Halbesleben & Wheeler,
2007; Halbesleben & Zellars, 2006).
The notion of providing resources to employees to support work–family integration
is a critical outcome of human resource development (HRD) programs
and a key theme of the present special issue. The purpose of this article is to
examine the manner in which a subset of employees with very high work–life
integration can provide insight concerning the provision of social support to a
broad base of employees. Based on existing research into same-career couples,
strategies for developing stronger social support in work settings by integrating
aspects of work and family life are discussed. To explain the role of these
resources and to develop lessons that can be translated to other employees, we
draw on the conservation of resources (COR) model.
COR Model
The COR (Hobfoll, 1988, 1998) model was developed to understand the
mechanisms underlying employee stress. The model proposes that employees
rely on motivational resources to complete their work. Hobfoll (2001) describes
those resources as “objects, personal characteristics, conditions or energies that
are valued in their own right or that are valued because they act as conduits to
the achievement or protection of valued resources” (p. 339; see also Hobfoll,
1988). Stress occurs when the demands of work exceed the resources available
to the employee; as such, it is in the best interest of employees to garner and conserve
those resources. We propose that the COR model has important implications
for same-career couples and, in a broader context, for HRD.
As its name implies, the key concept in the COR model is resources. In addition
to the basic idea that threat to or reduction of resources will lead to stress,
the COR model postulates more specific processes that are relevant to HRD.
First among those postulates is the notion that resource loss is more salient than
resource gain (Hobfoll, 2001). Individuals tend to focus more on the loss of
resources (e.g., wasted effort on a project at work) over gaining resources.
Oftentimes, even when resources are gained, it is thought about in the context
of resource demand or loss (e.g., completing a project in less time than expected
frees up time to work on some other pressing task). In the context of HRD, this
suggests employees are particularly tuned into how actions or outcomes affect
the loss of resources. For example, a week-long training program is likely to be
evaluated in terms of what an individual will gain relative to what he or she will
lose in the process.
A second postulate of the COR model relates to resource investment, or the
idea that resources must be invested to secure additional resources (Hobfoll,
2001). For example, to obtain a promotion at work (which gains resources such
as increased financial rewards, higher status, and perhaps higher autonomy),
one must invest significant resources in developing the skills that make him or
her attractive for the higher level position. Moreover, those with more resources
to begin with will have more to invest, yielding higher resources in the end
(Hobfoll & Shirom, 2000; Westman, Hobfoll, Chen, Davidson, & Laski, 2005).
In terms of HRD, the resource investment principle can lead to constructive outcomes
but only if employees have the needed resources to invest. For example,
individuals who are not given adequate performance feedback are unlikely to
seek out opportunities to develop new skills; they lack the baseline information
to make informed choices and form relevant plans of action. Though organizations
may provide opportunities to garner additional resources, employees will
be less likely to make the needed investment for potential resource gain.
As with any investment, the success of that investment requires that the choice
of investment be carefully considered and implemented. In the example of developing
new skills, those skills should be carefully chosen so as to maximize the outcomes
for that employee in the context of the organization; moreover, the path
taken to develop the skills needs to be considered so as to improve the outcome.
As noted by Hobfoll (1998), these decisions are individual but often made within
the context of the organizational culture. For example, if employees are given extra
time off for skill development, the culture of the organization may dictate that the
time resource is spent in a certain way (e.g., taking a course at a local university).
The COR model has also been applied to the complexities of work–life role
integration. Grandey and Cropanzano (1999) proposed that each role places
demands on resources and, if left unchecked, strains the work–life balance. For
example, as work demands increase (e.g., job enlargement), interference with
family demands often results, which in turn leads to greater job stress (Grandey
& Cropanzano, 1999; Shaffer, Harrison, Gilley, & Luk, 2001). Halbesleben and
Wheeler (2007) provided a resource-based framework for understanding how
resources of one domain influence the resources of another domain among those
who work with family (including same-career couples) based on the framework
for work–family linkages offered by Edwards and Rothbard (2000). Resource
drain (the notion that finite resources, such as time, spent in one domain necessarily
reduce available resources from another domain) is posited to be reduced
in same-career couples because when expending resources on one domain, they
may be simultaneously using the resources in another (e.g., by spending time
with a same-career partner, one could be discussing work).
Empirical support for the COR model. Since its inception, there have been a
number of attempts to empirically test the tenets of the COR model (see Westman
et al., 2005, for a review). Generally, the literature has supported the notion that
loss of resources leads to higher levels of stress and strain (cf., Lee & Ashforth,
1996). In one study, Taris, Schreurs, and Van Iersel–Van Silfhout (2001) found
higher demands on work-related resources (e.g., time and task demands) to be
associated with strain. Moreover, Janssen, Schaufeli, and Houkes (1999) found
evidence for the notion that those with greater resources are less vulnerable to
additional resource loss.
Halbesleben and Bowler (2007) extended the COR model to explain the
effect of burnout on performance. They found that when resources had been
depleted (as a result of burnout), in-role performance and organizational citizenship
behaviors directed at the organization were reduced. However, they also
found evidence for some resource investment following resource depletion;
specifically, higher levels of burnout were associated with increased organizational
citizenship behaviors targeted at individuals (e.g., specifically helping out
a certain coworker with a project). The outcomes suggest that in the face of
depleted resources, individuals will compensate through strategic investment of
resources. In this case, those with higher burnout invested in others in the organization;
Halbesleben and Bowler argued that this may be an attempt to maximize
personal returns in the future. Their research offers a critical tie between
resources and HRD programs, as it suggests that when organizations provide
more resources, employees will invest them in performance that most fits their
needs at the time. If employees are given the resources they need to address
stress and avoid burnout, they will have additional resources to invest in higher
quality performance.
In sum, the COR model has received significant empirical support, particularly
with regard to its predictions regarding the role of resources. The implication
is that organizations should make a specific effort to provide greater
resources to workers (Shirom & Ezrachi, 2003). As noted earlier, one manner
in which organizations can provide greater resources