Output refers to learning outcomes, that is, what learners are able to do as the result
of a period of instruction. This might be a targeted level of achievement on a proficiency
scale (such as the ACTFL Proficiency Scale) or on a standardized test such as TOEFL,
the ability to engage in specific uses of language at a certain level of skill (such as being
able to read texts of a certain kind with a specified level of comprehension), familiarity
with the differences between two different grammatical items (such as the simple past
and the present perfect), or the ability to participate effectively in certain communicative
activities (such as using the telephone, taking part in a business meeting, or engaging in
casual conversation). Language teaching since the late nineteenth century has seen a
change in the intended outputs of learning – from knowledge-based to performance-
based outputs. Hence while in Europe in the nineteenth century, foreign language learn-
ing was often promoted because of the mental discipline and intellectual development it
was believed to develop in learners, in the twentieth century languages were taught for
more practical goals. Today, desired learning outputs or outcomes are often described in
terms of objectives or in terms of performance, competencies or skills. In simple form
the components of curriculum and their relationship can be represented as follows: