การปรากฏตัวของมวลเซลล์ ที่นี่เราได้ทดสอบสมมติฐานว่าการปรากฏตัวของ ในขณะที่ยังคงไม่เปลี่ยนแปลง The presence of an interlamellar cell mass (ILCM) on the gills of goldfish significantly decreases the functional lamellar surface area and increases the diffusion distance for gas transfer and thus may impose a serious challenge for the transfer of respiratory gases (O2 and CO2). Here we tested the hypothesis that the presence of the ILCM in goldfish acclimated to 7 °C impedes the uptake of O2 and excretion of CO2. While PaO2PaO2 remained unaltered, the baseline values of PaCO2PaCO2 were significantly higher in goldfish at 7 °C with ILCM present (5.55 ± ± 0.54 0.54 mmHg; mean หมายถึง± SEM) SEM) than in goldfish at 25 °C without the ILCM (3.98 ± ± 0.18 anhydrase 0.18 mmHg). Carbonic anhydrase (CA) injections relieved the apparent diffusion limitation imposed by the presence of the ILCM on CO2 excretion (PwCO2PwCO2 levels dropped to 3.07 ± ± 0.32 ที่น่าสนใจของการสัมผัสปลาขาดออกซิเจนเฉียบพลันปรากฏการเปลี่ยนแปลงที่คล้ายกันใน เอทานอล ผลการศึกษาพบว่า โดยรวมผลการศึกษานี้แสดงให้เห็นว่าการเปลี่ยนแปลงของปลาปลาทองที่เกี่ยวข้องกับการปรับตัวถึง คำกิลล์ออกซิเจนHypercapnia; ระบายอากาศanhydrase ก๊าซในเลือด1 0.32 mmHg). Interestingly, the exposure of fish to acute hypoxia evoked similar changes in PaO2PaO2 at the two acclimation temperatures. Ethanol (EtOH) exposure was also used as a tool to further investigate the potential effects of the ILCM on branchial solute transfer. The results showed that the ILCM does not impede EtOH uptake in 7 °C goldfish. Overall, the results of this study demonstrate that the remodelling of the goldfish gill associated with acclimation to 7 °C water, while increasing PaCO2PaCO2, has minimal impact on branchial O2 transfer.
Keywords
Gill;
Hypoxia;
Hypercapnia;
Ventilation;
Carbonic anhydrase;
Blood gases
1. Introduction
Branchial gas transfer in teleost fish has been extensively studied over the past five decades (Holeton and Randall, 1967, Randall et al., 1967, Cameron and Davis, 1970, Randall et al., 1982, Randall and Daxboeck, 1984, Perry and Wood, 1989, Gilmour, 1997, Perry and Gilmour, 2002, Perry et al., 2009a and Perry and Gilmour, 2010). The existing theoretical (Piiper and Scheid, 1984, Malte and Weber, 1985 and Piiper, 1989) and empirical evidence (Daxboeck et al., 1982, Part et al., 1984, Julio et al., 2000 and Desforges et al., 2002) suggests that O2 uptake in rainbow trout (and presumably in other teleost fish) is subjected to minimal diffusion limitations under resting conditions and therefore behaves as a perfusion-limited system (Perry and Gilmour, 2002). In a perfusion-limited system, the extent to which arterial blood equilibrates with the inspired water is independent of blood transit time through the gill (Perry and Gilmour, 2002). Thus, in a perfusion-limited system, arterial PO2PO2(PaO2)(PaO2) can remain constant over a broad range of cardiac outputs and consequently, O2 uptake tends to increase linearly with increasing blood flow. The absence of diffusion limitations for O2 transfer under normal conditions implies that arterial PO2PO2 should be relatively insensitive to increases in the water-to-blood diffusion distance or a reduction in lamellar surface area. Indeed, the results of previous studies that have monitored PaO2PaO2 in trout experiencing reduced gill surface area (Julio et al., 2000) or a thickened diffusion barrier (Bindon et al., 1994 and Greco et al., 1995) have shown that PaO2PaO2 (at least during normoxia) can remain unaltered. However, if the thickening of the diffusion barrier is severe enough, reductions in PaO2PaO2 may indeed occur even under normoxic conditions (Thomas et al., 1988, Perry et al., 1996 and Perry, 1998). In accordance with theory, the diffusion limitations for O2 transfer increase with external hypoxia as the water-to-blood PO2PO2 gradient (the driving force for diffusion) decreases. Thus, as demonstrated for rainbow trout (Bindon et al., 1994 and Greco et al., 1995), the negative impact of increasing diffusion distance caused by thickening of the lamellar epithelium is most readily observed during exposure of fish to hypoxia.
By contrast, the transfer of CO2 across the gill of teleosts behaves as a diffusion-limited system (Desforges et al., 2002). Although the higher capacitance of water for CO2 relative to O2 should favour the diffusivity of molecular CO2, the overall process of branchial CO2 transfer is restricted by the need to convert plasma HCO3− to molecular CO2 within the brief period of blood transit through the gill vasculature (1–3 s Cameron and Polhemus, 1974). In other words, the apparent diffusion limitations for CO2 transfer reflect chemical equilibrium constraints imposed by the relatively slow conversion of plasma HCO3− to molecular CO2. The dehydration of plasma HCO3− to CO2, while occurring rapidly at the catalysed rate in the presence of red blood cell (RBC) carbonic anhydrase (CA), is constrained by the slow rate of the RBC Cl−/HCO3− exchanger, the rate limiting step in overall CO2 excretion (Perry et al., 1982, Perry, 1986, Perry and Gilmour, 1993 and Gilmour et al., 2004). For these reasons, the addition of exogenous CA to the plasma in teleosts (Julio et al., 2000, Desforges et al., 2001, Desforges et al., 2002 and Gilmour and MacNeill, 2003) or the presence of endogenous membrane-associated CA oriented to face the plasma in elasmobranchs (Wood et al., 1994, Gilmour et al., 1997, Henry et al., 1997, Gilmour et al., 2001, Gilmour and Perry, 2004 and Gilmour et al., 2007) greatly facilitates CO2 excretion (see review by Gilmour and Perry, 2010).
The goldfish (Carassius auratus), like crucian carp (C. carassius; Sollid et al., 2003), exhibits a remarkable structural remodelling of the gills in response to changes in ambient temperature or O2 levels ( Sollid et al., 2005, Mitrovic et al., 2009 and Mitrovic and Perry, 2009). With decreasing temperature (<15 °C), functional lamellar surface area is decreased and water-to-blood diffusion distances are increased owing to the formation between adjacent lamellae of a mass of cells termed the interlamellar cell mass (ILCM) ( Sollid et al., 2003). This strategy, while presumably beneficial for reducing passive loss of salts across the gill and hence lowering the energetic costs of ionic regulation during periods of lowered metabolic rate, is likely to impede branchial gas transfer especially under conditions of acute hypoxia ( Sollid et al., 2003; see reviews by Sollid and Nilsson, 2006 and Nilsson, 2007). Thus, the goldfish is an excellent model species for studying the consequences of naturally occurring reductions in lamellar surface area and increases in diffusion distances on branchial gas transfer. Given the presumed differences in the extent of apparent diffusion limitations for O2 and CO2 transfer, it seems plausible that the imposition of additional diffusion limitations associated with gill remodelling would disproportionately affect CO2 relative to O2 transfer. Specifically it is hypothesised that the presence of the ILCM in fish acclimated to cold water (7 °C) would have a greater impact on CO2 excretion and that any negative impacts on O2 transfer would be magnified during exposure of fish to acute hypoxia. Because the apparent diffusion limitations for CO2 transfer stem from the slow conversion of plasma HCO3− to CO2, it was further hypothesized that the negative consequences of gill remodelling on CO2 transfer might be partially relieved by the addition of exogenous CA to the plasma. These hypotheses were tested by measuring gill ventilation and arterial blood gases and pH in real time during periods of normoxia, hypoxia and hypercapnia (elevated PwCO2PwCO2 levels) using an extracorporeal circulation in goldfish with (7 °C) or without (25 °C) the ILCM present.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Experimental animals and surgical procedures
Goldfish (C. auratus) were purchased from Aleong's International (Mississauga, Ontario) and were held in circular tanks supplied with flowing, aerated, dechloraminated city of Ottawa tap water at 18 °C within the University of Ottawa Aquatic Care Facility. The goldfish were divided into two groups; one group was acclimated to 7 °C and the other to 25 °C. The final acclimation temperatures were achieved by increasing or decreasing the water temperature at an average rate of 2 °C per day. Based on our previous studies ( Mitrovic and Perry, 2009, Mitrovic et al., 2009 and Tzaneva and Perry, 2010), the lamellae of the 25 °C fish are largely devoid of an ILCM (occupying ∼20–30% of the lamellar channels) while the fish acclimated to 7 °C exhibit gills with extensive coverage of the lamellae by the ILCM (occupying ∼80–90% of the lamellar channels). Goldfish were held at their respective temperatures on a 12/12-h light/dark photoperiod and fed commercial food pellets daily for at least two weeks prior to experimentation. All experiments were conducted at the University of Ottawa at these two temperatures in compliance with guidelines of the Canadian Council of Animal Care (CCAC) and after approval of the University of Ottawa Animal Care Committee (Protocol BL-226).
Goldfish (average mass = 236 ± 9 g; N = 42) were anaesthetised in 10 mg l−1 benzocaine (Sigma–Aldrich, Inc.) until ventilation had ceased. The fish were then placed on a surgery table where the gills were irrigated with aerated anaesthetic solution. To measure ventilation frequency (fvent) and amplitude (Avent), impedance leads terminating in 1 cm2 brass plates were attached with sutures to the outer surface of each operculum. To allow sampling of the inspired water, a cannula (Clay Adams PE 160) was inserted through the snout between the nares into the buccal cavity. For continuous measurements of blood respiratory variables in vivo, the caudal vein and artery were cannulated. Briefly, a 2 cm lateral incision was made at the caudal peduncle. Saline (0.9% NaCl) filled cannulae (Clay Adams PE 50 with a ∼2 cm piece of PE 10 attached at the end) were inserted into the caudal vein and artery in the anterior direction. The incision was closed with silk sutures and the cannulae were secured to the skin with ligatures. The fish were then placed in plastic boxes (3.8 l) provided with flowing aerated water at the appropriate accli
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