The concept of shareholder value has been one of the driving forces in the change of current management practice. Since its introduction,1 the shareholder value movement has spread steadily and with growing impact, influenced by the globalization of business. Recent years have seen attempts to incorporate the shareholder value idea into the tools of management and financial analysis. Thus, traditional accounting numbers, such as return on investment, earnings per share, and operating profit,have been augmented by “new” measures and ratios such as Economic Value Added (EVA®), Economic Profit, Cash Value Added, or Added Value. In this article we compare these four measures by the
way they incorporate the idea of shareholder value, their flexibility in application to the valuation of companies and
measurement of financial performance, and their adaptability to the particular circumstances of a variety of companies.
In varying ways and to varying degrees, these measures attempt to mimic the components of the shareholder value
computation. In essence, shareholder value, as a financial measure, represents the present value of all future payments
to an investor—that is, the present value of the foretasted future cash flows,3 including increases in the value of the
business. Thus, the two key elements of any approximation to shareholder value will be some measure of these payments
and a discount rate. A central element of the discussion of each value measure is its derivation of these quantities.
Management decisions—specifically investment, financing, and operating decisions—affect shareholder value
through their influence on such value drivers as value growth duration, operating profit margin for the cash flow from
operations, or the cost of capital These value drivers connect to the valuation components through the shareholder value
network.4 Ideally, then, financial measures should be useful for the assessment of past managerial performance as well as
current corporate value. For this reason, the usefulness of each measure is considered both a “backward-looking”
measure of managerial performance and a “forward-looking” measure of corporate value based on present value
of anticipated cash flows. Merging these outlooks is consistent with the maxim of “value-based management” that has become a catchphrase in recent years. In the mid-1980s, companies like Coca-Cola began “value reporting” with the goal of quantifying shareholder value created. This practice has become one of the more influential developments in
management theory and practice, linking the external with the internal view of management and identifying drivers of corporate value.
The concept of shareholder value has been one of the driving forces in the change of current management practice. Since its introduction,1 the shareholder value movement has spread steadily and with growing impact, influenced by the globalization of business. Recent years have seen attempts to incorporate the shareholder value idea into the tools of management and financial analysis. Thus, traditional accounting numbers, such as return on investment, earnings per share, and operating profit,have been augmented by “new” measures and ratios such as Economic Value Added (EVA®), Economic Profit, Cash Value Added, or Added Value. In this article we compare these four measures by the
way they incorporate the idea of shareholder value, their flexibility in application to the valuation of companies and
measurement of financial performance, and their adaptability to the particular circumstances of a variety of companies.
In varying ways and to varying degrees, these measures attempt to mimic the components of the shareholder value
computation. In essence, shareholder value, as a financial measure, represents the present value of all future payments
to an investor—that is, the present value of the foretasted future cash flows,3 including increases in the value of the
business. Thus, the two key elements of any approximation to shareholder value will be some measure of these payments
and a discount rate. A central element of the discussion of each value measure is its derivation of these quantities.
Management decisions—specifically investment, financing, and operating decisions—affect shareholder value
through their influence on such value drivers as value growth duration, operating profit margin for the cash flow from
operations, or the cost of capital These value drivers connect to the valuation components through the shareholder value
network.4 Ideally, then, financial measures should be useful for the assessment of past managerial performance as well as
current corporate value. For this reason, the usefulness of each measure is considered both a “backward-looking”
measure of managerial performance and a “forward-looking” measure of corporate value based on present value
of anticipated cash flows. Merging these outlooks is consistent with the maxim of “value-based management” that has become a catchphrase in recent years. In the mid-1980s, companies like Coca-Cola began “value reporting” with the goal of quantifying shareholder value created. This practice has become one of the more influential developments in
management theory and practice, linking the external with the internal view of management and identifying drivers of corporate value.
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