Euclidean Geometry, Neutral Geometry, Non-Euclidean Geometry
Part I: Euclidean Geometry: Euclid (about 300 B.C.) wrote the first set of axioms for ordinary Euclidean geometry. Euclid’s Elements consisted of 13 books containing 465 propositions (theorems and proofs).
These propositions were based on 23 definitions and Five Postulates:
1) A straight line can be drawn from any point to any point.
2) A finite straight line can be produced continuously in a straight line.
3) A circle may be described with any point as center and any distance as radius.
4) All right angles are equal to one another.
5) The Parallel Postulate: If a transversal falls on two lines in such a way that the interior angles on one side of the transversal are less than two right angles, then the lines meet on that side on which the two angles are less than two right angles.
Though several flaws have been discovered with Euclid’s choice of postulates, it is postulate 5 (The Parallel Postulate) that prompted great discussion and discoveries. For nearly 2000 years geometer’s tried (and failed) to show that Postulate 5 was a theorem that followed from the first four postulates. In the process, it was shown that Postulate 5 is equivalent to many well known Euclidean statements:
5a) Playfair’s Postulate: For every line m and point P not on m, there exists a unique line n that contains P and is parallel to m.
5a) Straight lines parallel to the same straight line are parallel to each other.
5b) There exists a triangle for which the sum of the measures of the angles is p radians.
5c) The sum of the measures of the interior angles of a triangle is the same for all triangles.
5d) There exists a pair of similar, but non-congruent triangles.
5e) Every triangle can be circumscribed.
5f) There exists a pair of straight lines that are the same distance apart at every point.
5g) There exists a rectangle ( a quadrilateral with four right angles).
Part II: Neutral Geometry: Because of the controversy over the 5th Postulate, the theorems that can be proved without the use of the 5th Postulate was of great interest. That is, theorems in this geometry do not depend on the existence of parallel lines and even if we change the 5th Postulate (as we will do below in the development of Non-Euclidean Geometry), these theorems would all be valid. Actually, the first 28 of Euclid’s propositions are neutral – suggesting that Euclid himself may have been suspect of his 5th postulate. Here is a list of some of these:
Construction propositions:
E3: If two segments are of unequal length, then a segment congruent to the shorter can be constructed on the longer segment.
E9: The bisector of an angle can be constructed.
E10: The midpoint of a segment can be constructed.
E11: Given a line m and a point P on m, a line perpendicular to m and containing P can be constructed.
E12: Given a line m and a point P not on m, a line perpendicular to m and containing P can be constructed.
E23: Given an angle and a line, a congruent angle can be constructed on the line through a point on the line.
Angles and Triangles Propositions:
E5: Isosceles Triangle Theorem: If two sides of a triangle are congruent, then the angles opposite those sides are congruent.
E6: Converse of the Isosceles Triangle Theorem: If two angles of a triangle are congruent, then the sides opposite those angles are congruent.
E13: If two lines intersect, adjacent angles are supplementary.
E15: If two lines intersect, then the vertical angles are congruent.
E16: Exterior Angle Theorem (weak version): The measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is greater than either of the non-adjacent interior angles of the triangle.
E17: The sum of the measures of any two angles in a triangle is less than p radians.
E18: In a triangle, if two sides are not congruent, then the angles opposite them are not congruent, and the larger angle is opposite the larger side.
E19: In a triangle, if two angles are not congruent, then the sides opposite them are not congruent, and the larger side is opposite the larger angle.
E20: The Triangle Inequality: In any triangle, the sum of the lengths of two sides is greater than the length of the third.
Triangle Congruence Propositions:
E4: Side-Angle-Side (SAS) Congruence.
E8: Side-Side-Side (SSS) Congruence.
E26: Angle-Side-Angle (ASA) Congruence
Angle-Angle-Side (AAS) Congruence
Existence of parallel lines:
E27*: Alternate Interior Angle Theorem: If two lines are intersected by a transversal such that a pair of alternate interior angles are congruent, then the two lines are parallel.
E28: If two lines are intersected by a transversal such that a pair of corresponding angles are congruent, then the two lines are parallel.
If two lines are intersected by a transversal such that a pair of interior angles on the same side of the transversal are supplementary, then the two lines are parallel.
* Be careful – In Euclidean geometry the converse is true, but in neutral geometry it is not. I.e. It is not true in Neutral Geometry that if two parallel lines are intersected by a transversal then the alternate interior angles are congruent.
Significant Consequences of Neutral Geometry:
Saccheri-Legendre Theorem: The angle sum of any triangle is less than or equal to p radians.
Exterior Angle Theorem (Strong version): The measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is greater than or equal to the sum of the two non-adjacent interior angles.
Part III: Non-Euclidean Geometry: Attempts to validate Euclid’s geometry was to take the negation of Postulate 5 and try to find contradictions (but keeping the first 4 postulates and, hence, all theorems from Neutral Geometry).
It was known in 1733 that Postulate 5 was equivalent to
Playfair’s Postulate: For every line m and point P not on m, there exists a unique line n that contains P and is parallel to m.
Girolamo Saccheri was an Italian priest who considered the two negations and their consequences in 1733:
Elliptic Parallel Postulate: For every line m and point P not on m, there does not exist a line n that contains P and is parallel to m.
Hyperbolic Parallel Postulate: For every line m and point P not on m, there are at least two lines that contain P and are parallel to m.
Immediate contradictions arose with assuming the Elliptic Parallel Postulate** (see exercise below also), but no contradictions were found with the Hyperbolic Parallel Postulate (though Saccheri mistakenly claimed that he had found contradictions and thus shown the axiom were inconsistent). That is, Saccheri had unknowingly discovered a Non-Euclidean geometry (Hyperbolic Geometry) as consistent as that of Euclidean geometry.
** If we look at Postulate 2 , which states that lines can be extended indefinitely in two directions, and alter it and replace the 5th Postulate with the Elliptic Parallel Postulate, a geometry known as Elliptic Geometry can be constructed. This is more difficult because now the Neutral Theorems cannot even be assumed and we would need to start from scratch. However, Elliptic geometry is closely related to Euclidean Geometry on the Surface of a Sphere, so we will look at the surface of the sphere as a model for this geometry.
Neutral Geometry Exercises
Remember that you may not use facts that the sum of the angles in a triangle is 180 degrees or other consequences of parallel lines as is familiar from high school geometry. You can use the First Twenty-eight Propositions of Euclid, some of which are listed above. The rest are in your text. Here you will prove some of the theorems from Neutral Geometry.
1) Prove the Converse of the Isosceles Triangle Theorem. Hint: Begin by dividing the triangle into two congruent triangles with a legitimate construction. This proof is similar to the Euclidean proof.
2) Prove the Exterior Angle Theorem (Weak version). Note: You may not use the Saccheri-Legendre Theorem, as this is a consequence of the EAT. Hint: Begin with a triangle and an exterior angle of course. Construct a segment from one of the non-adjacent interior angles, say A, to the midpoint M of the opposite side of the triangle. Continue to extend this segment AM to a new point E (so E will be outside the triangle) so that M is also the midpoint of this segment AE.(Verify that these constructions are valid) Use congruent triangles to help argue.
3) Prove the Angle-Angle-Side Triangle Congruence Theorem. (You may assume the SAS congruence theorem). Hint: Assume and are such that (i.e. AAS). If you can show then you are done. WHY?? Prove or AB = DE by contradiction. If then, without loss of generality, assume . Use construction E3 to find such that . Compare and .
4) Prove the Angle-Side-Angle Triangle Congruence Theorem. (You may assume the SAS congruence theorem). Alter the proof of AAS above ever so slightly.
5) Prove the Exterior Angle Theorem (Strong version) . Here you can use the Saccheri-Legendre Theorem.
6) Let ABCD be a quadrilateral with . Let M be the midpoint of AD and N the midpoint of BC. (I am walking you through a sequence of little proofs that rely on each other, so you need to start with (a) and progress to (d) – You may write it as one long proof, but label the parts (a), (b), (c), (d) clearly).
a. Prove that .
b. Prove that .
c. Prove that are either both acute or both right angles.
d. Prove that . Explain why AB is parallel to DC and why AD is parallel to BC.
7) **Explain how the Elliptic Parallel Postulate is contradicted by the postulates of Neutral Geometry. I.e. Which theorems of Neutral Geometry guarantee that parallel lines exist (consider con