Conduct of empirical work
This section is focused on the conduct of empirical
work for interpretive case studies, and three sets of
issues have been selected for discussion, involving the
role of the researcher, interviewing techniques, and
reporting methods. This selection reflects the importance
of these issues to the interpretive IS researcher.
Mumford (1985) provides some useful advice to the IS
researcher on other empirical issues such as the choice
of research topic, collaboration with in-company personnel,
and confidentiality.
Role of the researcher
Interpretive researchers are attempting the difficult
task of accessing other people's interpretations, filtering
them through their own conceptual apparatus, and
feeding a version of events back to others, including in
some cases both their interviewees and other audiences.
In carrying out this work, it is important that
interpretive researchers have a view of their own role in
this complex human process. Two different roles can be
identified, namely that of the outside observer and that
of the involved researcher, through participant observation
or action research. From an interpretive perspective,
neither of these roles should be viewed as that
of an objective reporter, since the collection and
analysis of data involves the researcher's own subjectivity.
In addition, and particularly with reference to
in-depth case studies carried out over a period of time,
researchers inevitably influence the interpretations of
those people who are being researched, a process
referred to as the 'double hermeneutic' by Giddens
(1984). So, even if researchers view themselves as
outside observers, they are in some sense conducting
action research by influencing what is happening in the
domain of action, if only by the sharing of concepts and
interpretations with the personnel in the field site.
Despite the above qualification, the 'outside observer'
role preserves more distance from the personnel
in the field organizations. The latter will tend to view
the researcher not as one of themselves, but as an
outsider. The merit of this approach is that the
researcher is seen as not having a direct personal stake
in various interpretations and outcomes, and thus
personnel will often be relatively frank in expressing
their views, provided a rapport of trust can be
established. The main disadvantage of this role is that
the outside researcher will not be present on many
occasions, and will not get a direct sense of the field
organization from the inside. In addition, the researcher
may sometimes be debarred from access to
certain data and issues which are regarded as too
confidential or sensitive to be shared with outsiders.
The role of participant observer or action researcher
involves the researcher being a member of the field
group or organization, or at least becoming a temporary
member for some period of time. The merits of
this are that the participant observer will get an inside
view, and will not normally be debarred from confidential
or sensitive issues. On the other hand, the involved
researcher will be perceived as having a direct personal
stake in various views and activities, and other personnel
may be more guarded in their expressed interpretations
as a consequence. In addition, unless participant
observers or action researchers hide their research
motives, which could be considered an unethical
position (Mumford, 1985), they will still not be
regarded as normal employees and thus not total
insiders. A final problem with the role of involved
researcher is the extreme difficulty of reporting the part
one has played in the various matters under considera-
78 Interpretive case studies in IS research G Walsham
tion. Self-reporting faces the twin dangers of overmodesty
and self-aggrandisement, and it is particularly
difficult to steer a middle path between these two
extremes.
What advice can be given then on the choice of roles?
In the view of this author, the choice should be
consciously made by the researcher dependent on the
assessment of the above merits and demerits in each
particular case. For example, Nandhakumar (1993)
argued that his study of the design and development
processes of an executive information system was
enhanced by his role as a participant observer, since it
was possible for him to be involved in the day-to-day
happenings of the design team from the viewpoint of an
insider, in a way which would not have been possible
for an outside observer. Whatever the decision made
by the individual researcher, it is essential that the
choice is made in an explicit and reflective way, and
that the reasons are given when reporting the results of
the research.
Evidence from interviews
Yin (1989) argues that evidence for case studies may
come from six sources: documents, archival records,
interviews, direct observation, participant observation,
and physical artifacts. However, with respect to interpretive
case studies as an outside observer, it can be
argued that interviews are the primary data source,
since it is through this method that the researcher can
best access the interpretations that participants have
regarding the actions and events which have or are
taking place, and the views and aspirations of themselves
and other participants. Even in the case of
interpretive case studies being carried out as a participant
observer or action researcher, it can be argued
that interviews are still an important data source, since
they enable researchers to step back and examine the
interpretations of their fellow participants in some
detail.
With respect to interviewing style, this will vary
between individuals, depending on personality, but one
key issue for all interviewers is the balance which
should be adopted by them between excessive passivity
and over-direction. If the interviewer directs the
interview too closely, and refuses to allow interviewees
to express their own views except in response to
questions that are tightly controlled by the researcher,
then the data obtained will lose much of the richness of
interpretation which is the raw material of sensitive
interpretive studies. However, a researcher can err too
far the other way. If the researcher is too passive, for
example either by not prompting with questions which
follow some new direction taken by the interviewee or
by not offering his or her own ideas on some particular
issue, a number of negative consequences can result.
The interviewees may conclude that the researchers are
either not interested in their views and/or that the
researchers have no views of their own on the subjects
of investigation. This latter consequence can result in
IS interviewees, for example, doubting the professional
competence of the researchers in the IS domain, and
future collaboration with the research project becomes
jeopardised.
A second important issue in interviewing concerns
reporting media, since it is vital in an interpretive study
to 'capture' people's interpretations in as effective way
as possible, while at the same time conducting the
normal social interchanges of the interview. One
approach is to tape-record all research interviews. The
advantage of this is that it provides a full description of
what was said, whereas note-taking is necessarily
partial. The main disadvantage is that, in the case of
confidential or sensitive material, the respondent may
be seriously inhibited by the presence of the machine.
A second disadvantage of tape-recording as the sole
medium is the time that needs to be spent in either
transcribing the tape recording or extracting a set of
useful data from it. The main alternative to taperecording
is to make rough but extensive notes during
interviews, and to write them up in full as soon as
possible after the interview. Again, with respect to
advice to the researcher, individual circumstances need
to be considered. Note-taking supplemented by taperecording
where appropriate is one sensible approach.
Tape-recording may be considered appropriate as a
supplement in cases of relatively non-confidential
material, particularly where the interview contains a
large amount of relatively 'hard' data which it would be
difficult to capture by note-taking alone.
This sub-section has dealt with interviewing technique,
but it is important to emphasise that good
technique is a necessary but not a sufficient condition
for good interviewing. Access to people's thoughts,
views and aspirations requires good social skills and
personal sensitivity on the part of the researcher, and
these are less easily acquired than matters of technique.
Zuboff (1988) described her interview approach as
involving a 'non-judgemental form of listening'. Researchers
should be constantly critical with respect to
their own performance in this area, and one approach
is to carry out interviews in pairs and subsequently
to undertake a critique of each other's style and
sensitivity.
Reporting methods
The issue of how to report field work is important in all
research, but it can be argued that it is particularly
critical in interpretive case studies. Interpretive researchers
are not saying to the reader that they are
reporting facts; instead, they are reporting their interpretations
of other people's interpretations. It is thus
vital, in order to establish some credibility to the
Interpretive case studies in IS research GWalsham 79
reader, that they describe in some detail how they have
arrived at their 'results'. Reporting on 'soft' human
issues is not an excuse for sloppiness.
So what should be reported in an interpretive case
study? As a minimum, reporting on the collection of
field data should include details of the research sites
chosen, the reasons for this choice, the number of
people who were interviewed, what hierarchical or
professional positions they occupied, what other data
sources were used, and over what period the research
was conducted. With respect to data analysis, reporting
should include how the field interviews a
ปฏิบัติงานรวมส่วนนี้จะเน้นการบริหารผลงาน interpretive กรณีศึกษา และสามชุดมีการเลือกปัญหาสำหรับสนทนา เกี่ยวข้องกับการบทบาทของนักวิจัย เทคนิค การสัมภาษณ์ข้อมูลส่วนตัว และวิธีการรายงานการ ตัวเลือกนี้สะท้อนให้เห็นถึงความสำคัญปัญหาเหล่านี้ให้นักวิจัย IS interpretiveMumford (1985) ให้คำแนะนำที่เป็นประโยชน์บาง ISนักวิจัยในประเด็นอื่น ๆ ประจักษ์เช่นเลือกหัวข้อวิจัย ความร่วมมือกับบุคลากรในบริษัทและความลับบทบาทของนักวิจัยนักวิจัย interpretive พยายามยากงานเข้าถึงการตีความของคนอื่น กรองพวกเขาผ่านเครื่องตนเองแนวคิด และอาหารแบบของเหตุการณ์กลับไปยังผู้อื่น รวมทั้งในบางกรณี interviewees ของพวกเขาและผู้ชมอื่น ๆในการดำเนินงานนี้ มันเป็นสิ่งสำคัญที่นักวิจัย interpretive มีมุมมองในบทบาทของตนเองกระบวนนี้มนุษย์ซับซ้อน สองบทบาทที่แตกต่างกันได้ระบุ คือที่แหล่งภายนอกและที่ของนักวิจัยเกี่ยวข้อง ผ่านผู้เข้าร่วมสังเกตการณ์หรือวิจัยเชิงปฏิบัติการ จากมุมมองความ interpretiveบทบาทเหล่านี้ไม่ควรใช้เป็นที่ของการโปรแกรมรายงานวัตถุประสงค์ ตั้งแต่เก็บรวบรวม และการวิเคราะห์ข้อมูลเกี่ยวข้องกับ subjectivity นักวิจัยของตัวเองนอกจากนี้ และโดยเฉพาะอย่างยิ่งกับ reference ถึงกรณีศึกษาเชิงลึกที่ดำเนินการระยะเวลานักวิจัยย่อมมีอิทธิพลต่อการตีความของคนมีการวิจัยอย่างต่อเนื่อง กระบวนการเรียกว่าการ ' double hermeneutic' โดย Giddens(1984) . ดังนั้น แม้ว่านักวิจัยดูว่าตัวเองเป็นนอกผู้สังเกตการณ์ อยู่ในความรู้สึกบางอย่างดำเนินการดำเนินการวิจัย โดยมีอิทธิพลต่อสิ่งที่เกิดขึ้นในการโดเมนของการดำเนินการ ถ้าเฉพาะ โดยใช้แนวคิด และตีความพร้อมบุคลากรในฟิลด์ไซต์แม้ มีคุณสมบัติข้างต้น 'แหล่งภายนอก'บทบาทรักษาระยะห่างเพิ่มเติมจากบุคลากรในการที่องค์กร หลังจะมีแนวโน้มที่จะ ดูนักวิจัยไม่เป็นตัวเอง แต่เป็นการบุคคลภายนอก บุญของวิธีนี้คือการนักวิจัยจะเห็นได้ว่าไม่มีการเดิมพันส่วนบุคคลโดยตรงในการตีความต่าง ๆ และผลลัพธ์ และดังนั้นบุคลากรมักจะค่อนข้างตรงไปตรงมาในการแสดงมุมมองของพวกเขา ให้สายสัมพันธ์ของความน่าเชื่อถือได้ก่อตั้งขึ้น ข้อเสียหลักของบทบาทนี้คือนักวิจัยภายนอกจะไม่ปรากฏในหลายโอกาส และจะไม่ได้รับความรู้สึกโดยตรงของฟิลด์องค์กรจากภายใน นอกจากนี้ นักวิจัยบางครั้งอาจจะ debarred จากการเข้าถึงบางข้อมูลและประเด็นที่ถือเป็นเกินไปเป็นความลับ หรือมีความสำคัญสามารถใช้ร่วมกับบุคคลภายนอกบทบาทของนักการร่วมหรือนักวิจัยดำเนินการเกี่ยวข้องกับนักวิจัยที่เป็นสมาชิกของฟิลด์กลุ่ม หรือองค์กร หรืออย่างน้อย เป็น การชั่วคราวmember for some period of time. The merits ofthis are that the participant observer will get an insideview, and will not normally be debarred from confidentialor sensitive issues. On the other hand, the involvedresearcher will be perceived as having a direct personalstake in various views and activities, and other personnelmay be more guarded in their expressed interpretationsas a consequence. In addition, unless participantobservers or action researchers hide their researchmotives, which could be considered an unethicalposition (Mumford, 1985), they will still not beregarded as normal employees and thus not totalinsiders. A final problem with the role of involvedresearcher is the extreme difficulty of reporting the partone has played in the various matters under considera-78 Interpretive case studies in IS research G Walshamtion. Self-reporting faces the twin dangers of overmodestyand self-aggrandisement, and it is particularlydifficult to steer a middle path between these twoextremes.What advice can be given then on the choice of roles?In the view of this author, the choice should beconsciously made by the researcher dependent on theassessment of the above merits and demerits in eachparticular case. For example, Nandhakumar (1993)argued that his study of the design and developmentprocesses of an executive information system wasenhanced by his role as a participant observer, since itwas possible for him to be involved in the day-to-dayhappenings of the design team from the viewpoint of aninsider, in a way which would not have been possiblefor an outside observer. Whatever the decision madeby the individual researcher, it is essential that thechoice is made in an explicit and reflective way, andthat the reasons are given when reporting the results ofthe research.Evidence from interviewsYin (1989) argues that evidence for case studies maycome from six sources: documents, archival records,interviews, direct observation, participant observation,and physical artifacts. However, with respect to interpretivecase studies as an outside observer, it can beargued that interviews are the primary data source,since it is through this method that the researcher canbest access the interpretations that participants haveregarding the actions and events which have or aretaking place, and the views and aspirations of themselvesand other participants. Even in the case ofinterpretive case studies being carried out as a participantobserver or action researcher, it can be arguedthat interviews are still an important data source, sincethey enable researchers to step back and examine theinterpretations of their fellow participants in somedetail.With respect to interviewing style, this will varybetween individuals, depending on personality, but onekey issue for all interviewers is the balance whichshould be adopted by them between excessive passivityand over-direction. If the interviewer directs theinterview too closely, and refuses to allow intervieweesto express their own views except in response toquestions that are tightly controlled by the researcher,then the data obtained will lose much of the richness ofinterpretation which is the raw material of sensitiveinterpretive studies. However, a researcher can err toofar the other way. If the researcher is too passive, forexample either by not prompting with questions whichfollow some new direction taken by the interviewee orby not offering his or her own ideas on some particularissue, a number of negative consequences can result.The interviewees may conclude that the researchers areeither not interested in their views and/or that theresearchers have no views of their own on the subjectsof investigation. This latter consequence can result inIS interviewees, for example, doubting the professionalcompetence of the researchers in the IS domain, andfuture collaboration with the research project becomesjeopardised.A second important issue in interviewing concernsreporting media, since it is vital in an interpretive studyto 'capture' people's interpretations in as effective wayas possible, while at the same time conducting thenormal social interchanges of the interview. Oneapproach is to tape-record all research interviews. Theadvantage of this is that it provides a full description of
what was said, whereas note-taking is necessarily
partial. The main disadvantage is that, in the case of
confidential or sensitive material, the respondent may
be seriously inhibited by the presence of the machine.
A second disadvantage of tape-recording as the sole
medium is the time that needs to be spent in either
transcribing the tape recording or extracting a set of
useful data from it. The main alternative to taperecording
is to make rough but extensive notes during
interviews, and to write them up in full as soon as
possible after the interview. Again, with respect to
advice to the researcher, individual circumstances need
to be considered. Note-taking supplemented by taperecording
where appropriate is one sensible approach.
Tape-recording may be considered appropriate as a
supplement in cases of relatively non-confidential
material, particularly where the interview contains a
large amount of relatively 'hard' data which it would be
difficult to capture by note-taking alone.
This sub-section has dealt with interviewing technique,
but it is important to emphasise that good
technique is a necessary but not a sufficient condition
for good interviewing. Access to people's thoughts,
views and aspirations requires good social skills and
personal sensitivity on the part of the researcher, and
these are less easily acquired than matters of technique.
Zuboff (1988) described her interview approach as
involving a 'non-judgemental form of listening'. Researchers
should be constantly critical with respect to
their own performance in this area, and one approach
is to carry out interviews in pairs and subsequently
to undertake a critique of each other's style and
sensitivity.
Reporting methods
The issue of how to report field work is important in all
research, but it can be argued that it is particularly
critical in interpretive case studies. Interpretive researchers
are not saying to the reader that they are
reporting facts; instead, they are reporting their interpretations
of other people's interpretations. It is thus
vital, in order to establish some credibility to the
Interpretive case studies in IS research GWalsham 79
reader, that they describe in some detail how they have
arrived at their 'results'. Reporting on 'soft' human
issues is not an excuse for sloppiness.
So what should be reported in an interpretive case
study? As a minimum, reporting on the collection of
field data should include details of the research sites
chosen, the reasons for this choice, the number of
people who were interviewed, what hierarchical or
professional positions they occupied, what other data
sources were used, and over what period the research
was conducted. With respect to data analysis, reporting
should include how the field interviews a
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