Empirical research on media effects into these areas has been mixed and highly
contested. Many studies have affirmed that media have negative social effects and help
reproduce a number of social problems, while other studies assert skepticism toward claims
of negative media effects or attempt to confirm positive aspects of the media.
1 Empirical
studies are often funded by institutions who have interests in escaping or deflecting
criticism, or they are constrained by bias and limitations of various kinds. Yet dominant
theories of the media are equally contested on whether the media promote serious social
problems or have a more benign influence.