For instance, Kluckholm and Strodtbeck ( 196 1) compared cultures using six composite
dimensions:
human nature (good, evil, mix);
relationship to nature (dominant, harmony, subjugated);
relationship to others (hierarchical, collectivist, individualist);
mode of action (doing, becoming, being);
time orientation (future, present, past); and
conception of space (private, mixed, public).
This model is useful because it allows cultures to be compared along distinct dimensions.
Critics of this model have pointed out that the connotation of these dimensions is
subjective and may be understood differently in various cultures. Proponents of the model
contend that even though there is subjectivity, the comparisons do yield some valuable
insights. Others point out that this model is drawn from a social anthropological view and
is not directly related to business matters. The implications of this model for management
and the usefulness of this model in analyzing ethical decision making in business situations
are not clear. Evan (1974) applied a modified model to business organizations,
explaining the variations within a culture as predominant dimensions and subordinate
dimensions. Maznevski and Chudoba (1995) are beginning to adapt this model to international
business. So far, no comprehensive data on these orientations has been collected for
many countries around the world. As of today, this model best lends itself to qualitative
social research.
The social constructionist view of individual behavior contends that all action is emergent
and situationally defined. According to Weick (1979), culture is a context from which
emerges meaning and action. The full meaning of words and actions is not given a priori in
the words and actions themselves. Meaning results from the cultural filter. Hall (1976)
viewed the cultural contexts as the points at which people create and interpret communication. Cultural contexts contribute to the meaning given. Hall built a qualitative model that
can be used to compare cultures based on the importance of context, providing a simpler,
two-dimensional framework for culture. In high-context cultures the environment, situation,
and nonverbal behavior are crucial to creating and interpreting communication. The message
is implied in the circumstance. In low-context cultures there is a direct, verbal, or
written communication. The meaning resides within the words themselves, not the gestures
or situation. These communication styles have implications for management. Cross-cultural
comparisons are based on qualitative analyses of business conduct.