Toh et al. (2008) present four types of approach for organizations, with implications for HRM:
1. Guidance for the cost, organizations that seek to minimize costs are characterized by low
investment in human resources and minimal participation of workers.
2. Orientation to motivation, when organizations seek to increase the motivation of
employees, paying wages and benefits based on external equity.
3. Organizations that are devoted to recruitment, rigorous selection and training and
development, giving less emphasis to financial rewards.
4. Guidance for maximizing commitment, when organizations adopt a package of practices
of high performance, seek to select, develop, motivate and provide opportunities for
employees to contribute effectively to the results of the organization.