Parent numeracy teaching predicted only counting at the begin-ning of kindergarten. Both math concepts and counting were stableacross time, and predicted each other’s further growth, and mathfluency in grade 1. Mother’s education did not predict any skills inthe math model.We then examined the model in Fig. 2, after partialling out theeffects of word-reading accuracy on math fluency in grade 1. Theresidualized math fluency scores were used in the place of mathfluency factor scores. The model fit was excellent and accountedfor 10% of the variance (see Table 4 for the fit indexes). The mathconcepts remained a significant predictor of the residualized mathfluency scores in grade 1.Finally, we examined the fit of the HNE model after replacingthe parent numeracy teaching with the two HLE components (seeFig. 3). The model fit the data very well and accounted for 27% of thevariance (see Table 4 for the fit indexes). Parent literacy teachingpredicted counting at the beginning of kindergarten. Notably,