The second column of Table 1 presents bootstrap critical values and test statistics for the same trivariate model,
where ODA is taken as the auxiliary variable in the model, and the focus is exclusively on OPENNESS and GDP
relations. When we test for the hypothesis that OPENNESS does not cause GDP, we fail to reject the null hypothesis
in all LDCs in the sample, with the exception of four countries: Burkina Faso, Malawi, Sierra Leone and Zambia. It
should be noted that in two of these four cases, (for Burkina Faso and Zambia) the coefficient is found to be
negative. Our findings, therefore, provide some support to Vlastou (2010) who found a negative causal relation from
openness to growth in the case of Sub-Saharan African countries.