The forced-circulation evaporator involves a non-contact heat exchanger where liquid food is circulated at high rates (Fig. 26.4). A hydrostatic head, above the top of the tubes, eliminates any boiling of the liquid. Inside the separator, absolute pressure is kept slightly lower than that in the tube bundle. Thus, the liquid entering the separator flashes to form a vapor. The temperature difference across the heating surface in the heat exchanger is usually 3-5°C. Axial flow pumps are generally used to maintain high circulation rates with linear velocities of 2- 6 m/s, compared with a linear velocity of 0.3-1 m/s in natural-circulation evaporators. Both capital and operating costs of these evaporators are very low in comparison with other types of evaporators.