Regarding the first reform of decollectivization and the privatizing of land-use rights, two modeled benchmarks apply: (1) equal allocation of each commune’s land per capita and (2) a consumption-efficient allocation equalizing expected consumption or utility that coincides with market-based land allocation (Ravaillon and van de Walle 2008). Efficient and equal land allocation together hypothetically would have resulted in slightly lower poverty rates (two percentage points) than the actual rates. If, however, the poverty lines used at that time (early 1990s) were applied—and if a purely market-based land allocation were implemented—instead of the ones used in the model, poverty incidence would have been higher. When differentiating among the rural poor, the result become more evident: Nationally, mean consumption gains from privatizing land rights are about 15 percent for the poorest, with losses of about 20 percent for the richest. However, interregional differences apply, reflecting the specific pre-socialist situation in South Vietnam. Decentralized reform resulted in a more equitable outcome than would have been expected from a purely consumption-efficient one through land markets. In general, “it seems that an effort was made to protect the poorest and reduce overall inequality at the expense of overall consumption (Ravaillon and van de Walle 2008, 97).” The researchers went on to say that, “Clearly, both equity and efficiency were valued positively.”