efficiency expression and their application in assessing the particle-TES performance and design. The particle-TES system uses
low-cost stable materials that withstand high temperature at a fraction of the cost of the salt and metal containment vessels for
high-temperature TES. Cost analysis indicates that particle TES costs less than $10/kWhth, which is less than half the cost of the
current molten-salt-based TES and just a fraction of liquid heat transfer fluid storage at a similar high temperature of >700°C,
due to its low cost of storage medium and containment. The fluidized-bed TES can hold hot particles of > 800°C with >95%
exergetic efficiency, storage effectiveness, and thermal efficiency.