Financial ratios are computed from an organization’s income statement and balance sheet. Computing financial ratios is like taking a picture because the results reflect a situation at just one point in time. Comparing ratios over time and to industry averages is more likely to result in meaningful statistics that can be used to identify and evaluate strengths and weak- nesses. Trend analysis, illustrated in Figure 4-3, is a useful technique that incorporates both the time and industry average dimensions of financial ratios. Note that the dotted lines reveal projected ratios. Some Web sites, such as those provided in Table 4-5, calculate financial ratios and provide data with charts.
Table 4-6 provides a summary of key financial ratios showing how each ratio is calcu- lated and what each ratio measures. However, all the ratios are not significant for all indus- tries and companies. For example, accounts receivable turnover and average collection period are not very meaningful to a company that primarily does a cash receipts business. Key financial ratios can be classified into the following five types:
1. Liquidity ratios measure a firm’s ability to meet maturing short-term obligations. Current ratio
Quick (or acid-test) ratio
2. Leverage ratios measure the extent to which a firm has been financed by debt. Debt-to-total-assets ratio
Debt-to-equity ratio
Long-term debt-to-equity ratio
Times-interest-earned (or coverage) ratio
3. Activity ratios measure how effectively a firm is using its resources. Inventory turnover
Fixed assets turnover
Total assets turnover Accounts receivable turnover Average collection period
4. Profitability ratios measure management’s overall effectiveness as shown by the returns generated on sales and investment.
Gross profit margin
Operating profit margin
Net profit margin
Return on total assets (ROA)
Return on stockholders’ equity (ROE) Earnings per share (EPS) Price-earnings ratio
5. Growth ratios measure the firm’s ability to maintain its economic position in the growth of the economy and industry.
Sales
Net income
Earnings per share Dividends per share
Financial ratio analysis must go beyond the actual calculation and interpretation of ratios. The analysis should be conducted on three separate fronts:
1. How has each ratio changed over time? This information provides a means of evaluating historical trends. It is important to note whether each ratio has been historically increasing, decreasing, or nearly constant. For example, a 10 percent profit margin could be bad if the trend has been down 20 percent each of the last three years. But a 10 percent profit margin could be excellent if the trend has been up, up, up. Therefore, calculate the percentage change in each ratio from one year to the next to assess historical financial performance on that dimension. Identify and examine large percent changes in a financial ratio from one year to the next.
2. How does each ratio compare to industry norms? A firm’s inventory turnover ratio may appear impressive at first glance but may pale when compared to industry standards or norms. Industries can differ dramatically on certain ratios. For example grocery companies, such as Kroger, have a high inventory turnover whereas auto- mobile dealerships have a lower turnover. Therefore, comparison of a firm’s ratios within its particular industry can be essential in determining strength/weakness.
3. How does each ratio compare with key competitors? Oftentimes competition is more intense between several competitors in a given industry or location than across all rival firms in the industry. When this is true, financial ratio analysis should include comparison to those key competitors. For example, if a firm’s profitability ratio is trending up over time and compares favorably to the industry average, but it is trending down relative to its leading competitor, there may be reason for concern.
Financial ratio analysis is not without some limitations. First of all, financial ratios are
based on accounting data, and firms differ in their treatment of such items as depreciation, inventory valuation, research and development expenditures, pension plan costs, mergers, and taxes. Also, seasonal factors can influence comparative ratios. Therefore, conformity to industry composite ratios does not establish with certainty that a firm is performing normally or that it is well managed. Likewise, departures from industry averages do not always indicate that a firm is doing especially well or badly. For example, a high inventory turnover ratio could indicate efficient inventory management and a strong working capital position, but it also could indicate a serious inventory shortage and a weak working capital position.