The total noise in an operational amplifier is provided in the form of a curve by the manufacturer. This curve is usually labeled Broadband Noise for Various Band widths. There is also a curve for flicker or 1/f noise, and it is usually labeled Input Noise Voltage as a Function of Frequency. White noise, that is noise which is independent of frequency, is the noise level that does not change with frequency. The major sources of internal noise in measurement s the following: are (1) Johnson or thermal noise, noise, (3) flicker, or 1/f noise, and (4) popcorn noise.
Thermal Johnson) noise arises from the random motion of electrons in resistive materials due to thermal agitation. Because it is produced by thermal motion, the magni the noise it generates increases with temperature. Since thermal noise has a white power density spectrum (ie., the noise power density is independent of frequency), its magnitude is also proportional to the bandwidth of the measurement system (and to the resistance of the material in which it originates) Thermal noise is, therefore, mini mized by (1) reducing the system bandwidth through filtering, (2) selecting of compo nents and preamplifiers with low-noise characteristics, and (3) cooling those parts of the system's circuitry (typically the input stages) that are the largest contributors of noise in the system. Thermal noise is defined by