1. User profiles. One set of brand

1. User profiles. One set of brand imagery associations involves the type of person or
organization who uses the brand. This imagery may result in a profile or mental
image by customers of actual users or more aspirational, idealized users. Associations
of a typical or idealized brand user may be based on descriptive demographic factors
or more abstract psychographic factors. Demographic factors might include gender,
age, race, income, and marital status. Psychographic factors might include attitudes
toward life, careers, possessions, social issues, or political institutions. In a business-
to-business setting, user imagery might relate to the size or type of the organization.
User imagery may focus on the characteristics of more than just one type of individ-
ual and center on broader issues in terms of perceptions of a group as a whole. For
example, customers may believe that a brand is used by numerous people and there-
fore view the brand as “popular” or a “market leader.”
2. Purchase and usage situations. A second set of associations concerns the condi-
tions under which the brand could or should be bought and used. Associations of
a typical purchase situation may be based on a number of different considerations,
such as: (1) type of channel (e.g., department store, specialty store, or direct
through Internet or some other means); (2) specific store (e.g., Macy’s, Foot
Locker, or Fogdog.com); and (3) ease of purchase and associated rewards, if any.
11

Similarly, associations of a typical usage situation may be based on a number of
different considerations, such as: (1) time of the day, week, month, or year when
the brand is used; (2) place where the brand is used (e.g., inside or outside the
home); and (3) type of activity for which the brand is used (e.g., formal or infor-
mal).
3. Personality and values. Brands may also take on personality traits and values sim-
ilar to those of people. Brand personality is often related to the more descriptive
usage imagery but involves much richer, more contextual information. Five dimen-
sions of brand personality (with corresponding subdimensions) that have been
identified are: (1) sincerity (e.g., down-to-earth, honest, wholesome, and cheerful);
(2) excitement (e.g., daring, spirited, imaginative, and up-to-date); (3) competence
(e.g., reliable, intelligent, successful); (4) sophistication (e.g., upper-class and
charming); and (5) ruggedness (e.g., outdoorsy and tough).1
4. History, heritage, and experiences. Finally, brands may take on associations with
their past and with certain noteworthy events in the brand history. These types of
associations may involve distinctly personal experiences and episodes or be related
to past behaviors and experiences of friends, family, or others. Consequently, these
types of associations may be fairly idiosyncratic, although they sometimes exhibit
certain commonalties. Alternatively, these associations may be more public and
broad-based and therefore will be shared to a larger degree. In either case, associa-
tions with history, heritage, and experiences involve more specific, concrete exam-
ples that transcend the generalizations that make up the usage imagery.