Peroxides are usually very reactive and thus occur in nature only in a few forms. These include, in addition to hydrogen peroxide, a few vegetable products such as ascaridole and a peroxide derivative of prostaglandin. Hydrogen peroxide occurs in surface water, groundwater and in the atmosphere. It forms upon illumination or natural catalytic action by substances containing in water. Sea water contains 0.5 to 14 ug/L of hydrogen peroxide, freshwater 1 to 30 ug/L and air 0.1 to 1 parts per billion.[5]
Hydrogen peroxide is formed in human and animal organisms as a short-lived product in biochemical processes and is toxic to cells. The toxicity is due to oxidation of proteins, membrane lipids and DNA by the peroxide ions.[6] The class of biological enzymes called SOD (superoxide dismutase) is developed in nearly all living cells as an important antioxidant agent. They promote the disproportionation of superoxide into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide, which is then rapidly decomposed by the enzyme catalase to oxygen and water.[7]
mathrm{2 O_2 ^- + 2 H^+ xrightarrow {SOD} H_2O_2 + O_2}
Formation of hydrogen peroxide by superoxide dismutase (SOD)
Peroxisomes are organelles found in virtually all eukaryotic cells.[8] They are involved in the catabolism of very long chain fatty acids, branched chain fatty acids, D-amino acids, polyamines, and biosynthesis of plasmalogens, etherphospholipids critical for the normal function of mammalian brains and lungs.[9] Upon oxidation, they produce hydrogen peroxide in the following process:[10]
mathrm{R{-}CH_2{-}CH_2{-}CO{-}SCoA + O_2 xrightarrow {FAD} R{-}CH{=}CH{-}CO{-}SCoA + H_2O_2}
FAD = flavin adenine dinucleotide
Catalase, another peroxisomal enzyme, uses this H2O2 to oxidize other substrates, including phenols, formic acid, formaldehyde, and alcohol, by means of the peroxidation reaction:
mathrm{H}_2mathrm{O}_2 + mathrm{R'H}_2
ightarrow mathrm{R'} + 2mathrm{H}_2mathrm{O}, thus eliminating the poisonous hydrogen peroxide in the process.
This reaction is important in liver and kidney cells, where the peroxisomes neutralize various toxic substances that enter the blood. Some of the ethanol humans drink is oxidized to acetaldehyde in this way.[11] In addition, when excess H2O2 accumulates in the cell, catalase converts it to H2O through this reaction:
mathrm{H_2O_2 xrightarrow {CAT} extstylefrac12 O_2 + H_2O}
Another origin of hydrogen peroxide is the degradation of adenosine monophosphate which yields hypoxanthine. Hypoxanthine is then oxidatively catabolized first to xanthine and then to uric acid, and the reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme xanthine oxidase:[12]
Peroxides are usually very reactive and thus occur in nature only in a few forms. These include, in addition to hydrogen peroxide, a few vegetable products such as ascaridole and a peroxide derivative of prostaglandin. Hydrogen peroxide occurs in surface water, groundwater and in the atmosphere. It forms upon illumination or natural catalytic action by substances containing in water. Sea water contains 0.5 to 14 ug/L of hydrogen peroxide, freshwater 1 to 30 ug/L and air 0.1 to 1 parts per billion.[5]
Hydrogen peroxide is formed in human and animal organisms as a short-lived product in biochemical processes and is toxic to cells. The toxicity is due to oxidation of proteins, membrane lipids and DNA by the peroxide ions.[6] The class of biological enzymes called SOD (superoxide dismutase) is developed in nearly all living cells as an important antioxidant agent. They promote the disproportionation of superoxide into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide, which is then rapidly decomposed by the enzyme catalase to oxygen and water.[7]
mathrm{2 O_2 ^- + 2 H^+ xrightarrow {SOD} H_2O_2 + O_2}
Formation of hydrogen peroxide by superoxide dismutase (SOD)
Peroxisomes are organelles found in virtually all eukaryotic cells.[8] They are involved in the catabolism of very long chain fatty acids, branched chain fatty acids, D-amino acids, polyamines, and biosynthesis of plasmalogens, etherphospholipids critical for the normal function of mammalian brains and lungs.[9] Upon oxidation, they produce hydrogen peroxide in the following process:[10]
mathrm{R{-}CH_2{-}CH_2{-}CO{-}SCoA + O_2 xrightarrow {FAD} R{-}CH{=}CH{-}CO{-}SCoA + H_2O_2}
FAD = flavin adenine dinucleotide
Catalase, another peroxisomal enzyme, uses this H2O2 to oxidize other substrates, including phenols, formic acid, formaldehyde, and alcohol, by means of the peroxidation reaction:
mathrm{H}_2mathrm{O}_2 + mathrm{R'H}_2
ightarrow mathrm{R'} + 2mathrm{H}_2mathrm{O}, thus eliminating the poisonous hydrogen peroxide in the process.
This reaction is important in liver and kidney cells, where the peroxisomes neutralize various toxic substances that enter the blood. Some of the ethanol humans drink is oxidized to acetaldehyde in this way.[11] In addition, when excess H2O2 accumulates in the cell, catalase converts it to H2O through this reaction:
mathrm{H_2O_2 xrightarrow {CAT} extstylefrac12 O_2 + H_2O}
Another origin of hydrogen peroxide is the degradation of adenosine monophosphate which yields hypoxanthine. Hypoxanthine is then oxidatively catabolized first to xanthine and then to uric acid, and the reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme xanthine oxidase:[12]
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