We should stress that these patterns of growth effects apply when we control for
reverse causation by using the instrumental variables suggested by our analysis of the
determinants of religiosity. The instrument
s are the existence of a state religion, the
presence of government regulation of religion, the extent of religious pluralism, and the
composition of adherence among the main religions. The results remain intact when we
enter the composition of religions directly into the growth equations. Based on the
arguable exogeneity of the instrumental variables, we think that our estimates reflect
causal influences from religion to economic growth, rather than the reverse.