2. Principles to Guide Behavior in International and Global Matters
What sorts of duties of justice, if any, exist among human beings who do not reside in the same country? If there are such duties, what grounds them? Some argue that John Rawls’s principles developed for the case of domestic justice, notably, the Fair Equality of Opportunity Principle or the Difference Principle, should apply globally (Caney 2005, Moellendorf 2002). Others maintain that the content of our duties to one another is best explored by examining alternative concepts not featured in the Rawlsian corpus, such as capabilities or human rights (Nussbaum 2006, Pogge 2008).
Much discussion about what we owe one another in the global context is influenced by the work of John Rawls, so a short synopsis is needed to situate debates. Since discussion of these issues is amply covered in the entries on international distributive justice and on John Rawls, this will be a compressed summary focusing only on the most central aspects of the debate that have a bearing on core topics of global justice.
2.1 The Influence of Rawls’s Law of Peoples
In The Law of Peoples, John Rawls argues for eight principles that he believes should regulate international interactions of peoples. For Rawls, a “people” is constituted by a group of persons who have in common sufficient characteristics such as culture, history, tradition, or sentiment. Rawls uses the term “people” in ways that relevantly correspond with how many use the term “nation”. In addition, Rawls often assumes that, for the most part, each people has a state.
The eight principles Rawls endorses acknowledge peoples’ independence and equality, that peoples have the right to self-determination along with having duties of non-intervention, that they ought to observe treaties, honor a particular list of human rights, should conduct themselves in certain appropriate ways if they engage in warfare, and that they have duties to assist other peoples in establishing institutions to enable people’s self-determination. He also advocates for international institutions governing trade, borrowing, and other international matters that are characteristically dealt with by the United Nations.
Several claims have been the subject of much debate between critics and defenders of Rawls’s position. In particular, Rawls believes that so long as all peoples have a set of institutions that enable citizens to lead decent lives, any global inequality that might remain is not morally troubling. Critics draw attention to the ways in which global inequality—perhaps in levels of power or affluence—can convert into opportunities for deprivation and disadvantage. For instance, the global advantaged can use their superior position to influence the rules that govern international institutions—such as trade practices—which can facilitate further opportunities for increased advantage and so they can indeed threaten the abilities of others in distant lands to lead decent lives (Pogge 2008).[1]
Another important issue that underlies debate between Rawls and his critics concerns different views about the nature and origins of prosperity. Rawls gives a particularly strong statement of what he takes the causes of prosperity to be. He claims that the causes of the wealth of a people can be traced to the domestic political culture, the virtues and vices of leaders, and the quality of domestic institutions. He says:
I believe that the causes of the wealth of a people and the forms it takes lie in their political culture and in the religious, philosophical, and moral traditions that support the basic structure of their political and social institutions, as well as in the industriousness and cooperative talents of its members … The crucial elements that make the difference are the political culture, the political virtues and civic society of the country (Rawls 1999, p. 108).
Critics observe that in addition to local factors there are also international ones which play an important role in prospects for well-being. Thomas Pogge prominently helps bring some of these into view. International institutions, such as the International Borrowing and Resource Privileges, are good examples of the ways in which international institutions can have profound effects on domestic factors which undeniably also play a role in promoting prosperity. According to the international borrowing privilege, governments may borrow amounts of money on behalf of the country and the country thereby incurs an obligation to repay the debt. The international resource privilege refers to a government’s ability to do what it likes with resources, including sell them to whomsoever it chooses to and at what price. Any group that exercises effective power in a state is internationally recognized as the legitimate government of that territory and enjoys the two privileges. But, Pogge argues, this sets up undesirable incentives that hamper developing countries’ abilities to flourish. These include incentivizing those strongly motivated to hold office for material gain to take power by force or exercise it in oppressive ways that help reinforce oppressive governments’ abilities to retain control. The global advantaged benefit greatly from these privileges and so have little incentive to reform them. But, according to Pogge, reforms are sorely needed. If only sufficiently legitimate governments are able to enjoy these privileges, the international community would remove one important obstacle developing countries currently face.
Defenders of Rawls’s views argue that his position is more complex than is commonly acknowledged and allows for both a principled stance on some fundamental values along with appropriate openness to alternative ways in which legitimate and decent peoples might organize their collective lives (Reidy 2004, Freeman 2006). They argue that Rawls’s position shows great sensitivity to a number of factors that must be weighed in considering right conduct in international affairs. For instance, when Rawls makes his bold claims about the causes of wealth it is useful to bear in mind the context in which he is arguing. Against an assumption that resources are enormously important for a society’s ability to flourish, Rawls emphasizes the importance of strong institutions, political culture and other local factors, in sustaining decent lives for citizens. Rawls also reflects on the difficulty of changing political culture, noting that simply transferring resources will not help. Interestingly, in a little discussed passage, Rawls ventures that an “emphasis on human rights may work to change ineffective regimes and the conduct of rulers who have been callous about the well-being of their own people” (Rawls 1999, p. 109). For more on whether Rawls provides us with a cogent model that can provide sage guidance in international matters see the entry on international distributive justice and the entry on John Rawls. See also Martin and Reidy (2006). For the purposes of this entry we need only summarize some key questions that were influential in setting the terms of discussion about global justice for some time.
Some key questions are:
What principles should govern interactions among peoples at the global level?
What are the causes of prosperity and are they traceable entirely to domestic factors or are international considerations relevant?
What should count as the kind of prosperity or well-being that we are aiming to promote?
Do we have an obligation to ensure people have their basic needs met and can otherwise lead “decent” lives, or should we be more concerned with global socio-economic equality?
What duties do we have to those peoples who do not yet have what they need for self-determination or prosperity?
If human rights serve an important role in world affairs, which rights should be on our list of those to endorse? What duties arise from such commitment?
Can we properly hold nations to be entirely responsible for the well-being of their people and if so, in what kinds of conditions might this make sense? How do we encourage nations to take responsibility for their people’s well-being?
When we consider what we owe one another, do compatriots deserve special consideration?
I trace some of the influential positions that have shaped answers to these questions next.
2.2 What Global Duties Do We Have?
One of the most visible and large-scale contemporary global justice problems we face is that of global poverty. What ought we to do for the 1 billion or so people who currently live in poverty? (This is a huge area nicely canvassed in the entry on international distributive justice.) A few seminal arguments deserve mention here as well, however. In a classic argument Peter Singer describes a so-called easy rescue case in which an infant is drowning in a shallow pond. You happen by and can save the child with minimal effort and inconvenience on your part. Singer argues that you would be obligated to assist using the principle that when it is in our power to prevent something bad from happening without sacrificing anything comparable, it is wrong not to prevent the bad from occurring. Reflecting on this principle Singer argues that it entails extensive duties to assist needy others, whether they be geographically proximate or not. We have extensive duties to assist the global poor who, with equally minimal effort on our part, can be saved from dire circumstances, since the same principle applies in both cases (Singer 1972, and for more treatment Unger 1996).
Another enormously influential contribution is that of Thomas Pogge who argues that since developed countries impose a coercive global order on the poor that foreseeably and avoidably causes great harm, they have important responsibilities to reform the global order such that it ceases to do so and instead better secures human rights (Pogge 2002, 2008, 2010). We harm the global poor when we
2. หลักการทำงานแนะนำในเรื่องโลกและนานาชาติเรียงลำดับสิ่งของหน้าที่ความยุติธรรม ถ้ามี อยู่ในหมู่มนุษย์ที่มีอยู่ในประเทศเดียวกันหรือไม่ ถ้ามีหน้าที่ดังกล่าว สิ่ง grounds พวกเขา บางคนโต้เถียงว่า จอห์น Rawls หลักพัฒนาสำหรับกรณีของความยุติธรรมในประเทศ ยวด เป็นธรรมความเสมอภาคของโอกาสทางการขายหลักการหรือหลักการแตกต่าง ควรใช้ทั่วโลก (Caney 2005, Moellendorf 2002) ผู้รักษาว่า เนื้อหาของเราหน้าที่อื่นส่วนอุดม ด้วยการตรวจสอบแนวคิดทางเลือกที่โดดเด่นในคอร์พัสคริ Rawlsian เช่นความสามารถหรือสิทธิมนุษยชน (Nussbaum 2006, Pogge 2008) ไม่สนทนามากเกี่ยวกับว่าเราค้างชำระอื่นในบริบทโลกได้รับอิทธิพลจากการทำงานของจอห์น Rawls เพื่อเป็นข้อสรุปสั้น ๆ ที่จำเป็นสำหรับการดำเนินแล้ว เนื่องจากสนทนาปัญหาเหล่านี้จะครอบคลุมในรายการแจกแจงธรรมนานาชาติ และจอห์น Rawls, amply นี้จะสรุปบีบเน้นด้านกลางที่สุดของการอภิปรายที่มีเรืองเป็นหัวข้อหลักของความยุติธรรมสากล เท่านั้น2.1 อิทธิพลของกฎหมายของ Rawls คนในกฎหมายของคน จอห์น Rawls จนในหลักแปดที่เขาเชื่อว่า ควรควบคุมการโต้ตอบระหว่างประเทศของชนชาติ สำหรับ Rawls "คน" จะทะลักตามกลุ่มของบุคคลที่มีลักษณะพอกัน เช่นวัฒนธรรม ประวัติศาสตร์ ประเพณี ความเชื่อมั่น Rawls ใช้คำว่า "คน" ที่ relevantly ตรงกับการใช้คำว่า "ชาติ" นอกจากนี้ Rawls มักจะสันนิษฐานว่า ส่วนใหญ่ แต่ละคนมีสถานะหลักแปด Rawls endorses ยอมรับคนชอบอิสระและความเสมอภาค การที่คนมีสิทธิที่จะปกครองตนเองรวมทั้งมีหน้าที่ไม่ใช่แทรกแซง ว่า พวกเขาควรจะคำนึงถึงสนธิสัญญา เกียรติรายการเฉพาะของสิทธิมนุษยชน ควรดำเนินการเองในวิธีที่เหมาะสมบางอย่างถ้าพวกเขามีส่วนร่วมในสงคราม และพวกเขามีหน้าที่ช่วยเหลือคนอื่น ๆ ในการสร้างสถาบันให้ประชาชนปกครองตนเอง นอกจากนี้เขายังสนับสนุนการควบคุมการค้า เงินกู้ยืม และเรื่องอื่น ๆ ระหว่างประเทศที่มี characteristically ดำเนินการ โดยสหประชาชาติสถาบันระหว่างประเทศเรียกร้องต่าง ๆ มีเรื่องถกเถียงกันมากระหว่างกองหลังตำแหน่งของ Rawls และนักวิจารณ์ โดยเฉพาะอย่างยิ่ง Rawls เชื่อว่า ตราบใดที่ทุกคนมีชุดของสถาบันซึ่งทำให้ประชาชนนำชีวิตที่ดี อสมการใด ๆ ทั่วโลกที่อาจยังคงไม่คุณธรรม troubling นักวิจารณ์วาดความสนใจไปยังวิธีอสมการใดโลก — บางทีระดับของพลังงานหรือ affluence — สามารถแปลงให้เป็นโอกาสมาและข้อเสียได้ ตัวอย่าง ส่วนกลางพิจารณาเป็นพิเศษสามารถใช้ตำแหน่งของพวกเขาเหนือกว่าการมีอิทธิพลต่อกฎที่ควบคุมสถาบันนานาชาติ — เช่นวิธีปฏิบัติทางการค้า — ซึ่งจะอำนวยความสะดวกเพิ่มเติมโอกาสในประโยชน์ที่เพิ่มขึ้น และเพื่อให้ พวกเขาสามารถแน่นอนคุกคามความสามารถของคนในดินแดนที่ห่างไกลเพื่อนำชีวิตที่ดี (Pogge 2008) [1]ปัญหาสำคัญอื่นที่ underlies อภิปรายระหว่าง Rawls และนักวิจารณ์ของเขาเกี่ยวข้องกับมุมมองต่าง ๆ เกี่ยวกับธรรมชาติและต้นกำเนิดของความเจริญรุ่งเรือง Rawls ให้แข็งแกร่งโดยเฉพาะอย่างยิ่งรายงานสิ่งที่เขาใช้สาเหตุของความเจริญรุ่งเรืองให้ เขาอ้างว่า สามารถติดตามสาเหตุของมายคนมีวัฒนธรรมทางการเมืองภายในประเทศ คุณค่า vices ผู้นำ และคุณภาพของสถาบันในประเทศ เขากล่าวว่า:ผมเชื่อว่า สาเหตุของความมั่งคั่งของคนเป็นและแบบที่ใช้อยู่ ในวัฒนธรรมการเมือง และศาสนา ปรัชญา และประเพณีคุณธรรมที่สนับสนุนโครงสร้างพื้นฐานของสถาบันทางการเมือง และสังคมของพวกเขา และ ในพรสวรรค์ industriousness และสหกรณ์ของสมาชิก... องค์ประกอบสำคัญที่ทำให้ความแตกต่างมีวัฒนธรรมทางการเมือง คุณธรรมทางการเมือง และสังคมที่พลเมืองของประเทศ (Rawls 1999, p. 108)Critics observe that in addition to local factors there are also international ones which play an important role in prospects for well-being. Thomas Pogge prominently helps bring some of these into view. International institutions, such as the International Borrowing and Resource Privileges, are good examples of the ways in which international institutions can have profound effects on domestic factors which undeniably also play a role in promoting prosperity. According to the international borrowing privilege, governments may borrow amounts of money on behalf of the country and the country thereby incurs an obligation to repay the debt. The international resource privilege refers to a government’s ability to do what it likes with resources, including sell them to whomsoever it chooses to and at what price. Any group that exercises effective power in a state is internationally recognized as the legitimate government of that territory and enjoys the two privileges. But, Pogge argues, this sets up undesirable incentives that hamper developing countries’ abilities to flourish. These include incentivizing those strongly motivated to hold office for material gain to take power by force or exercise it in oppressive ways that help reinforce oppressive governments’ abilities to retain control. The global advantaged benefit greatly from these privileges and so have little incentive to reform them. But, according to Pogge, reforms are sorely needed. If only sufficiently legitimate governments are able to enjoy these privileges, the international community would remove one important obstacle developing countries currently face.Defenders of Rawls’s views argue that his position is more complex than is commonly acknowledged and allows for both a principled stance on some fundamental values along with appropriate openness to alternative ways in which legitimate and decent peoples might organize their collective lives (Reidy 2004, Freeman 2006). They argue that Rawls’s position shows great sensitivity to a number of factors that must be weighed in considering right conduct in international affairs. For instance, when Rawls makes his bold claims about the causes of wealth it is useful to bear in mind the context in which he is arguing. Against an assumption that resources are enormously important for a society’s ability to flourish, Rawls emphasizes the importance of strong institutions, political culture and other local factors, in sustaining decent lives for citizens. Rawls also reflects on the difficulty of changing political culture, noting that simply transferring resources will not help. Interestingly, in a little discussed passage, Rawls ventures that an “emphasis on human rights may work to change ineffective regimes and the conduct of rulers who have been callous about the well-being of their own people” (Rawls 1999, p. 109). For more on whether Rawls provides us with a cogent model that can provide sage guidance in international matters see the entry on international distributive justice and the entry on John Rawls. See also Martin and Reidy (2006). For the purposes of this entry we need only summarize some key questions that were influential in setting the terms of discussion about global justice for some time.Some key questions are:What principles should govern interactions among peoples at the global level?What are the causes of prosperity and are they traceable entirely to domestic factors or are international considerations relevant?What should count as the kind of prosperity or well-being that we are aiming to promote?Do we have an obligation to ensure people have their basic needs met and can otherwise lead “decent” lives, or should we be more concerned with global socio-economic equality?What duties do we have to those peoples who do not yet have what they need for self-determination or prosperity?If human rights serve an important role in world affairs, which rights should be on our list of those to endorse? What duties arise from such commitment?Can we properly hold nations to be entirely responsible for the well-being of their people and if so, in what kinds of conditions might this make sense? How do we encourage nations to take responsibility for their people’s well-being?When we consider what we owe one another, do compatriots deserve special consideration?I trace some of the influential positions that have shaped answers to these questions next.2.2 What Global Duties Do We Have?One of the most visible and large-scale contemporary global justice problems we face is that of global poverty. What ought we to do for the 1 billion or so people who currently live in poverty? (This is a huge area nicely canvassed in the entry on international distributive justice.) A few seminal arguments deserve mention here as well, however. In a classic argument Peter Singer describes a so-called easy rescue case in which an infant is drowning in a shallow pond. You happen by and can save the child with minimal effort and inconvenience on your part. Singer argues that you would be obligated to assist using the principle that when it is in our power to prevent something bad from happening without sacrificing anything comparable, it is wrong not to prevent the bad from occurring. Reflecting on this principle Singer argues that it entails extensive duties to assist needy others, whether they be geographically proximate or not. We have extensive duties to assist the global poor who, with equally minimal effort on our part, can be saved from dire circumstances, since the same principle applies in both cases (Singer 1972, and for more treatment Unger 1996).Another enormously influential contribution is that of Thomas Pogge who argues that since developed countries impose a coercive global order on the poor that foreseeably and avoidably causes great harm, they have important responsibilities to reform the global order such that it ceases to do so and instead better secures human rights (Pogge 2002, 2008, 2010). We harm the global poor when we
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