Client Importance
Auditors are paid by the companies whose financial statements they audit. Economically
important clients carry greater weight in an auditor’s portfolio. Therefore, an auditor may
have a higher incentive to yield to pressure from larger clients, thereby compromising independence.
6 Meanwhile, concerns over litigation and reputation may counter this threat.
Therefore, whether audit quality is impaired for important clients is an empirical question.
Much research has been conducted on this topic. Studies that use modeling techniques provide
strong theoretical grounds for archival and experimental studies. However, empirical
evidence is mixed.
Auditors’ Incentives, Benefits, and Behaviors
Several articles using theoretical modeling investigate the effect of low-balling on auditor
independence and audit quality. DeAngelo (1981b) contends that low-balling is sunk costs
and will not impair independence. Lee and Gu (1998) argue that low-balling improves
independence. However, Magee and Tseng (1990) indicate that the value of incumbency
can negatively affect independence if there is a multi-period disagreement on reporting
policy. Dopuch and King (1996) report experimental evidence that a high degree of lowballing
decreases audit quality in non-competitive market settings. However, an archival
study by Gul, Fung, and Jaggi (2009) does not find evidence that low-balling results in
impaired audit quality.
Despite the fee structure, some modeling articles suggest that litigation risk would
decrease the likelihood of auditors acting in favor of the client (e.g., Farmer, Rittenberg, &
Trompeter, 1987). In the case of audit failure, an auditor may be subject to legal actions
initiated by regulatory agencies or investors, which would harm auditor reputation and
potentially cause the auditor to lose fees from other clients (DeAngelo, 1981a). Therefore,
high litigation risk serves as an incentive for auditors to remain independent despite economic
dependency.
In an early study, Deis and Giroux (1992) document that quality-control review findings
increase with the number of clients. Wright and Wright (1997) find that auditors are more
likely to waive audit adjustments for larger clients.
Most studies examine the association between client importance and independence using
the issuance of the audit opinion, including a modified audit opinion (MAO), a qualified
audit opinion (QAO), and a going-concern opinion (GCO). Krishnan and Krishnan (1996)
document that auditors are less likely to issue QAOs to larger clients when warranted.
Similarly, Blay and Geiger (2013) find that higher current and subsequent fees result in a
lower likelihood of GCOs.
In Australia, Craswell, Stokes, and Laughton (2002) do not find evidence that independence
is compromised for important clients by examining the propensity to issue a QAO.
No such evidence is documented in Norway either, where auditors receiving higher fees
are not less likely to issue MAOs (Hope & Langli, 2010). This finding is noteworthy as
auditors face lower litigation and reputation risk in a sample of private Norwegian firms,
relative to the United States.
Meanwhile, regulatory changes may mitigate concerns that auditor independence is compromised
for significant clients. C. Li (2009) finds that in the pre-SOX period, there is no
link between client importance and the auditor’s propensity to issue a GCO. However, in
the post-SOX period, this association becomes positive, indicating that larger clients are
more likely to receive a GCO. The positive role of regulatory changes in this regard is also
documented in a Chinese setting (S. Chen, Sun, & Wu, 2010).
Reynolds and Francis (2001) find that Big 5 auditors are more conservative toward
larger clients. Similar findings are reported for non–Big 5 auditors (Hunt & Lulseged,
2007). In contrast, Chi, Douthett, and Lisic (2012) find that Big N partners do not compromise
their independence for large clients, whereas non–Big N partners do. The negative
effect of client importance on partner independence is also documented by Trompeter
(1994) and Carcello, Hermanson, and Huss (2000).