In many systems, however (especially those in which the signal source and amplifier are separated by some distance), single-point grounding techniques may be either impractical or impossible. In addition, we have already discussed how systems utilizing the single-point grounding techniques still contain one or more ground loops that arise as a result of capacitive coupling. An example is shown in Fig. 16.10.The ground loop is the path made up of the power-line ground, power transformer primary-to-secondary winding capacitance, C12, and the signal ground (the path connecting points 1-2-3-1 of the simple, single-point grounded system shown in Fig. 16.10) This ground-loop path can still introduce an unwanted common-mode voltage in series with the measured signal v a For example, in Fig. 16.10 (aaaaa) at 60 Hz current of 50 uA (and thus a common-mode voltage of 10 uV) will still be present as a noise signal Vcm in series with rs at the input of the amplifier. For some low-level signal measurements, this noise voltage may still be excessively large. In such systems, use of an amplifier with a differential input together with the use of input guarding will probably be the answer to this ground-loop problem [Note that Fig. 16.4(b) shows a variation of the simple measurement circuit of Fig. 16.10. It also uses the single-point grounding method, but with the ground connections made in a modified way. If a single-ended amplifier is used in the circuit of Fig. 16.4(b), a ground-loop path including chassis-to-ground capacitive coupling (typically 3000 pF) will be created. This will cause a small common-mode voltage signal to appear at the amplifier inputs, comparable to one caused by the ground loop of Fig. 16.10].