FIGURE 1.
Scannell and Gifford’s tripartite model of place attachment (Reprinted from Journal of Environmental Pschology, 30/1, Scannel L. and Gifford R., Defining place attachment: A tripartite organizing framework,1-10, 2010, with permission from Elsevier).
Place attachment has different scopes and scales in terms of place as a physical setting. Therefore the place dimension of the framework has been divided into two levels by the authors: social and physical place (natural and built) attachment. They stress out that physical characteristics of a place can be central to attachment; nevertheless “people are attached to places that facilitate social relationships and group identity”.
Place attachment is influenced by many factors such as socio-demographic characteristics, environmental factors (type of involvement, familiarity to a place, activities in a place etc.), past experiences, culture, psychological factors, biological factors, and place itself [17, 23].Place attachment is also linked to environment friendly behaviour [16]. It is assumed that people, who develop positive meanings and emotions to a place, tend to protect and care for that particular place.
As expressed before, the relationship between place attachment and place identity is still controversial among researchers. Some researchers consider place identity as a dimension of place attachment; while some others suggest that place identity is necessary for the formation of place attachment [18]. There are also researchers who assume place identity and place attachment are two separate concepts.
The term “place identity” has a duality in its meaning. In spatial planning and design, place identity is generally linked to the place itself. It refers to the distinctiveness of uniqueness of a place which is a result of the interaction between its physical features and its users. For instance Stobbelaar and Pedroli (2011) use the term “landscape identity” and they point out that the concept lacks clarity and not well- defined [25]. They define landscape identity as the perceived uniqueness of a place. Moreover they assert that perceiving has both personal and social dimension and uniqueness is based on the interaction between the physical environment and social factors.
On the contrary, in psychology “place identity” concept is a “personal” issue and linked to self-identity. One of the well-known works on place identity in psychology field is Proshansky’s “The city and self-identity”. In his work Proshansky (1978) defines place identity as [26]:
“those dimensions of self that define the individual’s personal identity in relation to the physical environment by means of a complex pattern of conscious and unconscious ideas, beliefs, preferences, feelings, values, goals, and behavioural tendencies and skills relevant to this environment”.
In summary, Proshansky’s definition proposes that physical environments influence self-identity as a result of the interaction between a person and a place. One of the well-known examples of how place affects one’s identification of self is expressions like “New Yorker” or “Londoner”. Similar to place attachment, place identity may also occur at different levels and scales of places; such as “European” at the continental level or “East ender” at the neighbourhood level or “Turkish” at the country level. In this respect, place identity overlaps with social identity.
While Proshansky promotes “place identity” as a separate concept, Twigger-Ross and Uzzell (1996) suggest that all aspects of identity have place-related implications and place should not be considered as a separate part of the identity [27]. They also comment that place attachment can function to support or develop aspects of identity.
Place is not merely important in developing and maintaining self identity, but it also has a significant effect on human well-being and behaviour [17]. There is a two-way relationship between a person and a place. While place influences self identity, people also tend to create, change or maintain their physical surroundings in the way which reflect themselves. Hence, the physical environment is a reflection of the identity of its users.
So far basic approaches to place attachment and place identity have been presented in this section. Next section will focus on development, maintenance of and current issues on the identity of urban landscapes from the perspective of urban planning and design.
4. Urban landscape and identity
Landscape is a dynamic phenomenon which is shaped by both natural and cultural forces. Thus, change is an inherent character of any landscape. Changes in landscape may not always happen as a result of planned actions, but may also be an unexpected effect [28]. Although change of the environments does not necessarily have to result in negative ways, it is a process that is often perceived in negative terms. The magnitude and speed of the change that has been faced since the 20th century is dramatic and environmental problems it has caused is apparent and alarming. Besides current landscape changes are characterized by the loss of diversity, coherence and identity of the existing landscapes [29].
The major forces of landscape change can be defined as [28]:
1. Socioeconomic driving forces (primarily economic factors; market economy, globalization etc.)
2. Political driving forces (political programs, laws, policies etc.)
3. Technological driving forces (information technology, developments in transportation etc.)
4. Natural driving forces (changes in climate, topography, soil characteristics etc. and natural disasters)
5. Cultural driving forces
On the other hand, Antrop (2006) is more specific and definite when defining the driving sources [30]. According to him the main driving forces of landscape change are [30]:
1. Mobility patterns related to accessibility of places
2. Urbanization process
3. Decisions affecting large areas that overrule local decisions
4. Calamities
Landscape change is a continuous and rather complex process. Dealing with it requires a multidisciplinary approach. The above factors are all in some extent linked to each other. However, landscapes are considerably complex systems where it is often difficult to understand how driving forces interact and influence each other. This section will focus on the effects of two major driving forces of landscape change on urban landscape identity; urbanization and globalization.
Urbanization has been one of the significant phenomena which has dramatically changed our physical and social environments since the second half of the last century. Antrop (2004) defines urbanization as “a complex process that transforms the rural or natural landscapes into urban and industrial ones forming star-shaped spatial patterns controlled by the physical conditions of the site and its accessibility by transportation routes” [31]. Certainly, improvements in transportation and increased mobility have led to expansion of urban areas, as well as the transformation of rural areas into urban ones. Terms like urban sprawl, urban fringe and suburbanization emerged in relation to urbanization process.
Urbanization process is mainly about industrialization and economic activities. People prefer living in urban areas rather than rural areas because they hope to achieve a better quality of life in cities. However, urbanization processes in developed and developing countries do not necessarily shape cities and towns the same. In most of the developing countries, planned development of urban areas cannot always “catch” the population increase rates (mainly caused by immigration from rural areas) due to insufficient development and management strategies, as well as funding. Therefore, in contrast to mostly planned urban expansion in developed countries, developing countries face with low quality environments such as slums and squatter housings. This not only affects the quality of physical environment and image of the city, but also leads to fragmentation of social coherence and social identity. As Antrop (2004) summarizes; “urbanizationis primarily a complex of functional changes, followed by morphological and structural ones” [31].
Cities are not only physical constructs, but also involve social structures. The citizens are the fundamental elements of cities that keep it alive and functioning. There is a mutual relationship between a city’s physical characteristics and its citizens. While the physical dimension of a city (buildings, open and green spaces, streets etc.) is shaped and formed under the influence of its citizens, it also shapes its citizens life-styles and social identity throughout the time. Cities are thus cultural heritages. As Stephenson puts it culture and identity are not merely about social relationships, but also spatial [32].
From a psychological perspective Göregenli (2005) asserts that urban identity or urban identities are a result of complex relationships between individual self, place identity and urban environments [23]. Cities are a product of continuous interaction between the physical environment and social life; their image reflects the communities’ experiences, beliefs and values. Consequently identity of an urban place is the total of both physical and social distinctive features that is unique to it [12].
Meaning and sense of belonging are central to perceived urban identity. According to Lalli developing sense of belonging to a city requires coherence in urbanization process [23]. Unfortunately, today’s cities are shaped under international influences and it is quite difficult to define planning and design forms which are necessary to maintain the local identity [33].
According to Lynch, identity is part of the image of a city. Although the image of a city is not necessarily the same as its identity [34], it is the physical and most instant perceived reflection of its i
FIGURE 1.
Scannell and Gifford’s tripartite model of place attachment (Reprinted from Journal of Environmental Pschology, 30/1, Scannel L. and Gifford R., Defining place attachment: A tripartite organizing framework,1-10, 2010, with permission from Elsevier).
Place attachment has different scopes and scales in terms of place as a physical setting. Therefore the place dimension of the framework has been divided into two levels by the authors: social and physical place (natural and built) attachment. They stress out that physical characteristics of a place can be central to attachment; nevertheless “people are attached to places that facilitate social relationships and group identity”.
Place attachment is influenced by many factors such as socio-demographic characteristics, environmental factors (type of involvement, familiarity to a place, activities in a place etc.), past experiences, culture, psychological factors, biological factors, and place itself [17, 23].Place attachment is also linked to environment friendly behaviour [16]. It is assumed that people, who develop positive meanings and emotions to a place, tend to protect and care for that particular place.
As expressed before, the relationship between place attachment and place identity is still controversial among researchers. Some researchers consider place identity as a dimension of place attachment; while some others suggest that place identity is necessary for the formation of place attachment [18]. There are also researchers who assume place identity and place attachment are two separate concepts.
The term “place identity” has a duality in its meaning. In spatial planning and design, place identity is generally linked to the place itself. It refers to the distinctiveness of uniqueness of a place which is a result of the interaction between its physical features and its users. For instance Stobbelaar and Pedroli (2011) use the term “landscape identity” and they point out that the concept lacks clarity and not well- defined [25]. They define landscape identity as the perceived uniqueness of a place. Moreover they assert that perceiving has both personal and social dimension and uniqueness is based on the interaction between the physical environment and social factors.
On the contrary, in psychology “place identity” concept is a “personal” issue and linked to self-identity. One of the well-known works on place identity in psychology field is Proshansky’s “The city and self-identity”. In his work Proshansky (1978) defines place identity as [26]:
“those dimensions of self that define the individual’s personal identity in relation to the physical environment by means of a complex pattern of conscious and unconscious ideas, beliefs, preferences, feelings, values, goals, and behavioural tendencies and skills relevant to this environment”.
In summary, Proshansky’s definition proposes that physical environments influence self-identity as a result of the interaction between a person and a place. One of the well-known examples of how place affects one’s identification of self is expressions like “New Yorker” or “Londoner”. Similar to place attachment, place identity may also occur at different levels and scales of places; such as “European” at the continental level or “East ender” at the neighbourhood level or “Turkish” at the country level. In this respect, place identity overlaps with social identity.
While Proshansky promotes “place identity” as a separate concept, Twigger-Ross and Uzzell (1996) suggest that all aspects of identity have place-related implications and place should not be considered as a separate part of the identity [27]. They also comment that place attachment can function to support or develop aspects of identity.
Place is not merely important in developing and maintaining self identity, but it also has a significant effect on human well-being and behaviour [17]. There is a two-way relationship between a person and a place. While place influences self identity, people also tend to create, change or maintain their physical surroundings in the way which reflect themselves. Hence, the physical environment is a reflection of the identity of its users.
So far basic approaches to place attachment and place identity have been presented in this section. Next section will focus on development, maintenance of and current issues on the identity of urban landscapes from the perspective of urban planning and design.
4. Urban landscape and identity
Landscape is a dynamic phenomenon which is shaped by both natural and cultural forces. Thus, change is an inherent character of any landscape. Changes in landscape may not always happen as a result of planned actions, but may also be an unexpected effect [28]. Although change of the environments does not necessarily have to result in negative ways, it is a process that is often perceived in negative terms. The magnitude and speed of the change that has been faced since the 20th century is dramatic and environmental problems it has caused is apparent and alarming. Besides current landscape changes are characterized by the loss of diversity, coherence and identity of the existing landscapes [29].
The major forces of landscape change can be defined as [28]:
1. Socioeconomic driving forces (primarily economic factors; market economy, globalization etc.)
2. Political driving forces (political programs, laws, policies etc.)
3. Technological driving forces (information technology, developments in transportation etc.)
4. Natural driving forces (changes in climate, topography, soil characteristics etc. and natural disasters)
5. Cultural driving forces
On the other hand, Antrop (2006) is more specific and definite when defining the driving sources [30]. According to him the main driving forces of landscape change are [30]:
1. Mobility patterns related to accessibility of places
2. Urbanization process
3. Decisions affecting large areas that overrule local decisions
4. Calamities
Landscape change is a continuous and rather complex process. Dealing with it requires a multidisciplinary approach. The above factors are all in some extent linked to each other. However, landscapes are considerably complex systems where it is often difficult to understand how driving forces interact and influence each other. This section will focus on the effects of two major driving forces of landscape change on urban landscape identity; urbanization and globalization.
Urbanization has been one of the significant phenomena which has dramatically changed our physical and social environments since the second half of the last century. Antrop (2004) defines urbanization as “a complex process that transforms the rural or natural landscapes into urban and industrial ones forming star-shaped spatial patterns controlled by the physical conditions of the site and its accessibility by transportation routes” [31]. Certainly, improvements in transportation and increased mobility have led to expansion of urban areas, as well as the transformation of rural areas into urban ones. Terms like urban sprawl, urban fringe and suburbanization emerged in relation to urbanization process.
Urbanization process is mainly about industrialization and economic activities. People prefer living in urban areas rather than rural areas because they hope to achieve a better quality of life in cities. However, urbanization processes in developed and developing countries do not necessarily shape cities and towns the same. In most of the developing countries, planned development of urban areas cannot always “catch” the population increase rates (mainly caused by immigration from rural areas) due to insufficient development and management strategies, as well as funding. Therefore, in contrast to mostly planned urban expansion in developed countries, developing countries face with low quality environments such as slums and squatter housings. This not only affects the quality of physical environment and image of the city, but also leads to fragmentation of social coherence and social identity. As Antrop (2004) summarizes; “urbanizationis primarily a complex of functional changes, followed by morphological and structural ones” [31].
Cities are not only physical constructs, but also involve social structures. The citizens are the fundamental elements of cities that keep it alive and functioning. There is a mutual relationship between a city’s physical characteristics and its citizens. While the physical dimension of a city (buildings, open and green spaces, streets etc.) is shaped and formed under the influence of its citizens, it also shapes its citizens life-styles and social identity throughout the time. Cities are thus cultural heritages. As Stephenson puts it culture and identity are not merely about social relationships, but also spatial [32].
From a psychological perspective Göregenli (2005) asserts that urban identity or urban identities are a result of complex relationships between individual self, place identity and urban environments [23]. Cities are a product of continuous interaction between the physical environment and social life; their image reflects the communities’ experiences, beliefs and values. Consequently identity of an urban place is the total of both physical and social distinctive features that is unique to it [12].
Meaning and sense of belonging are central to perceived urban identity. According to Lalli developing sense of belonging to a city requires coherence in urbanization process [23]. Unfortunately, today’s cities are shaped under international influences and it is quite difficult to define planning and design forms which are necessary to maintain the local identity [33].
According to Lynch, identity is part of the image of a city. Although the image of a city is not necessarily the same as its identity [34], it is the physical and most instant perceived reflection of its i
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