might be better manageable for the teacher. However, this
disregards that the whole is different from the sum of its
parts. In addition, splitting up a complex phenomena into
subjects and only examining isolated facts makes it hard
for the student to recognise links between facts and
phenomena. A connection to the real-life context is
missing. However, theoretical findings about the
advantages of constructivist learning (the holistic approach,
real-world challenges, motivation i.e.) and criteria for its
realisation are distinct (Reich 2008, Dewey 1916). The
practical implementation itself does not yet take place
effectively (Gardner 2010, Wagner 2011). We believe that
teachers are demotivated and helpless in making use of
constructivist learning theory and realising holistic project
work in the classroom, due to negative classroom
experiences with project methods. This is partly because
of difficulties in assessing performance in project work. It
will always be easier to let students do a test, asking for
logical and analytical thinking only (computer-like). These
tests are linear, sequential and time restricted. It’s still
difficult to measure more complex and social oriented
21st century skills. But still the old saying is true: What you
test is what you get. Ministries of educations therefore take
this issue seriously right now. Over the last years, there
has been a big effort, in many western countries to
integrate 21st century skill assessment into major, mostly
centralised tests, as the A-level, or German
Mittelstufenabschluss. This is still a struggle but has
already proven to open the education systems to a new
group of students, focussing on those with actual
potential, regardless of their educational background.
Another reason might be missing recommendations of
designing constructivist learning and project-work. The
latter shall be in the focus of this paper. There is a missing
link of transferring theoretical findings of pedagogy science
into practical implementation, which leads the teacher to
focus on approved and easily conductible content learning
methods, denying constructivist learning projects. Wagner
is referring to it as the “Global Achievement Gap”, the gap
between “what even the best schools are teaching and
testing versus the skills all students will need for careers,
college, and citizenship in the 21st century” (Wagner
2011). We want to fill that gap by proposing Design
Thinking as a meta-disciplinary methodology which offers
teachers the needed support through a formalised
process. Teachers, as facilitators of learning need to be
equipped with up-to-date skills and tools to actually
practice on the needed key competence learning.
Otherwise, there is a risk that such competences will even
more decline. There are high stakes in teacher education.
Criteria for a constructivist learning and teaching
design
Learning is a process of understanding, which leads to
modifications in the behaviour of the learner (Hasselhorn
and Gold 2006). According to constructivist theory, this is
achieved through experience. The teacher as a facilitator of
learning should consequently be able to design learning
experiences. So, what is needed for constructivist learning
design? In his concept of CSSC learning, Erik de Corte
points out four main criteria for competence oriented
learning: to be constructed, situated in context, selfregulated by the learner and collaborative (de Corte
2010). As participation and engagement of the student is
a crucial characteristic of constructivist learning (Reich
2008), the teacher needs to involve the student in the
learning design, e.g. to look at the students interests in
order to propose a problem statement or project
challenge. Even more so, they need space to try out
different mental models and methods to connect abstract
knowledge with concrete applications and thereby, being
able to convert and apply abstract and general principles
(acquired through instruction) in meaningful and
responsible acting in life (acquired through construction).
The following three aspects are essential for a convenient
constructive learning design:
• involvement of students;
• experience space;
• balance of instruction and construction.
In sum, a good lesson design needs to be a balanced
composition of instruction and construction, or as Dewey
would say “construction through instruction” (Dewey
1913, Knoll 1993). A lesson design should answer, How
students can experience certain situations, and how
teacher can enable this experience. A good learning
design is in what schools mostly fail until today. The How,
e.g. the instruction to execute constructivist learning is
either too open (free construction only) or too detailed
(instruction only).
Teaching complex phenomena – approaches for
implementation
Abstract approach: Dewey’s Problem-Solving method
Dewey’s understanding of learning was a direct process of
a structured interaction of humans and their natural and
social environment. These interactions produce
experiences which modify further interaction (Dewey
1913) – learning took place (see definition of learning
above, Hasselhorn and Gold 2006).
Thinking and doing are very much intertwined as the one
defines the other and vice versa. This reflects a holistic