Enzymes involved in glycogenesis
A detailed description of the process can be found in any Biochemistry textbook[8]. As summarized in Figure 2, glucose is converted into glucose-6-phosphate by the action of glucokinase (liver) or hexokinase (muscle). Glucose-6-phosphate is then converted into glucose-1-phosphate by the action of the enzyme phosphoglucomutase, passing through an obligatory intermediate step of glucose-1,6-bisphosphate.
Next the glucose-1-phosphate is converted into UDP-glucose by the action of uridyl transferase (also called UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase). One molecule of UTP is used in this step and one molecule of pyrophosphate is formed, which is hydrolyzed by pyrophosphatase into 2 molecules of inorganic phosphate (Pi). UDP-glucose molecules are incorporated into the growing glycogen chain by the enzyme glycogen synthase, which must act on a pre-existing primer. Initially this is the small protein glycogenin, but once initiated the primer is the growing glycogen chain.
The mechanism for joining glucose units is that glycogen synthase binds to UDP-glucose, causing it to break down into an oxonium ion, which can readily add to the 4-hydroxyl group of a glucosyl residue on the 4 end of the glycogen chain. After every 10 to 14 glucose units a side branch with an additional chain of glucose units occurs. The side chain attaches at carbon atom 6 of a glucose unit, and the linkage is termed an alpha-1,6 glycosidic bond. To form this connection a separate enzyme known as a branching enzyme is used. Branching enzyme (systematic name: 1,4-alpha-D-glucan:1,4-alpha-D-glucan 6-alpha-D-(1,4-alpha-D-glucano)-transferase) attaches a string of seven glucose units[8].
Regulation of glycogenesis
As summarized in Figure 2, there is a reciprocal relationship between glycogen synthesis (glycogenesis) and glycogen breakdown (glycogenolysis) and factors that enhance one inhibit the other. One of the main forms of control is the varied phosphorylation of glycogen synthase and glycogen phosphorylase by protein kinase A (PKA). Phosphorylated glycogen synthase is inactive in contrast to glycogen phosphorylase which is activated following phosphorylation.
As discussed above, conditions such as low glucose levels or stress that promote the activation of PKA as a result of released adrenaline or glucagon binding to their G-protein coupled receptors, promote the process of energy generation through glycogen breakdown and inhibit the process of glycogen synthesis. Similarly calcium ions inhibit glycogen synthase indirectly through their activation of PKA. Finally glycogenesis is enhanced by elevated levels of ATP which act as an allosteric inhibitor of glycogen phosphorylase[8].
References
Enzymes involved in glycogenesisA detailed description of the process can be found in any Biochemistry textbook[8]. As summarized in Figure 2, glucose is converted into glucose-6-phosphate by the action of glucokinase (liver) or hexokinase (muscle). Glucose-6-phosphate is then converted into glucose-1-phosphate by the action of the enzyme phosphoglucomutase, passing through an obligatory intermediate step of glucose-1,6-bisphosphate.Next the glucose-1-phosphate is converted into UDP-glucose by the action of uridyl transferase (also called UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase). One molecule of UTP is used in this step and one molecule of pyrophosphate is formed, which is hydrolyzed by pyrophosphatase into 2 molecules of inorganic phosphate (Pi). UDP-glucose molecules are incorporated into the growing glycogen chain by the enzyme glycogen synthase, which must act on a pre-existing primer. Initially this is the small protein glycogenin, but once initiated the primer is the growing glycogen chain.The mechanism for joining glucose units is that glycogen synthase binds to UDP-glucose, causing it to break down into an oxonium ion, which can readily add to the 4-hydroxyl group of a glucosyl residue on the 4 end of the glycogen chain. After every 10 to 14 glucose units a side branch with an additional chain of glucose units occurs. The side chain attaches at carbon atom 6 of a glucose unit, and the linkage is termed an alpha-1,6 glycosidic bond. To form this connection a separate enzyme known as a branching enzyme is used. Branching enzyme (systematic name: 1,4-alpha-D-glucan:1,4-alpha-D-glucan 6-alpha-D-(1,4-alpha-D-glucano)-transferase) attaches a string of seven glucose units[8].Regulation of glycogenesisAs summarized in Figure 2, there is a reciprocal relationship between glycogen synthesis (glycogenesis) and glycogen breakdown (glycogenolysis) and factors that enhance one inhibit the other. One of the main forms of control is the varied phosphorylation of glycogen synthase and glycogen phosphorylase by protein kinase A (PKA). Phosphorylated glycogen synthase is inactive in contrast to glycogen phosphorylase which is activated following phosphorylation.As discussed above, conditions such as low glucose levels or stress that promote the activation of PKA as a result of released adrenaline or glucagon binding to their G-protein coupled receptors, promote the process of energy generation through glycogen breakdown and inhibit the process of glycogen synthesis. Similarly calcium ions inhibit glycogen synthase indirectly through their activation of PKA. Finally glycogenesis is enhanced by elevated levels of ATP which act as an allosteric inhibitor of glycogen phosphorylase[8].References
การแปล กรุณารอสักครู่..
