Field Responses to Challenges. An interesting early study conducted at the
field level of analysis is that of Miles (1982), who studied the response of the
"Big Six" corporations in the United States tobacco industry to the threat
posed by the demonstration of a causal link between smoking and impaired
health. Although there was some early warning, the publication of the
surgeon general's report linking smoking and cancer and subsequent actions
taken by various federal agencies constituted a major "environmental" crisis
for these organizations. Although each corporation adopted a variety of individual strategies ranging from product innovation to diversification, they also
engaged in collective action. For example, during the first signs of trouble,
they created the Tobacco Industry Research Committee to conduct their own
studies of the effects of tobacco use. Following the surgeon general's report,
they collectively engaged in a wide variety of lobbying efforts, providing
cancer-research grants to the American Medical Association and various
universities and monitoring closely and attempting to influence legislative
and administrative actions affecting their interest.