In the run-up to the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Khomeini’s popularity and influence grew. In particular, Khomeini struck a chord with the urban poor and his words provided a channel into which to funnel the revolutionary anger, enthusiasm, and uncertainty sweeping the nation. Khomeini’s refusal to compromise with the monarchy and his disdain for Western governments gave weight to his claim that Iran’s problems could be resolved by a return to Islamic ways, an idea that was increasingly gaining traction among the Muslim masses.
By the fall of 1978, there was a decisive entry of the industrial and salaried working classes, including influential oil workers, into the mass protest movement. The middle class, generally associated with the National Front, was swept up in the revolutionary current and increasingly had little choice but to join forces with Khomeini. As people became emboldened and enthusiastic, even in the face of deaths during demonstrations, the crucial stage of the revolution began with massive politico-economic strikes against the shah starting in late summer. The economy was virtually paralyzed, contributing to a groundswell of support for Khomeini’s uncompromising stance.38
When Khomeini returned to Iran from exile on February 1, 1979, crowds of more than three million greeted him. From February 9 to 11, intense fighting took place between antishah guerillas, rebel troops, and soldiers loyal to the shah. Two days of street fighting culminated with the overthrow of the monarchy. Of the three pillars the Pahlavis had constructed to strengthen their state, the military had been ren- dered powerless, the bureaucracy had fused with the revolution, and court patronage had become a humiliating façade of justice.39
The voice of the people had proved powerful enough to destroy the Pahlavi monarchy, but the immediate challenge after the revolution was to channel that voice and draft a new constitution to replace the 1906 fundamental laws. Religion was at the heart of Khomeini’s objective to enshrine Islam at the center of Iran’s new constitution. Indeed, as the revolution sought to define itself in constitutional terms, Khomeini demonstrated a pragmatic ability to handle challenges from major social and political groups and the restructuring of the Iranian state.40
The process of crafting a new constitution produced an uneven struggle between Khomeini and his disciples on the one hand and Prime Minister Mehdi Bazargan and his liberal Muslim allies on the other. Bazargan and Khomeini clashed over whether or not to institute an Islamic republic. Bazargan advocated a third option in the form of a democratic Islamic republic.41 Khomeini responded by arguing that “Islam does not need adjectives such as democratic. Precisely because Islam is everything, it means everything. It is sad for us to add another word near the word Islam, which is perfect.”42
On April 1, 1979, Khomeini won the debate decisively with 99 percent of electorate voting yes on a referendum to institute the Islamic republic. Out of a total of 21 million people, 20 million participated. The vote established the framework for the elections of a 73-man constituent body called the Majles-e Khebregan (Assembly of Experts)—a term with strong religious overtones. When the elections took place in August, the Central Komiteh, the Central Mosque Office, and the newly structured Society for the Militant Clergy of Tehran (Jam’eh-e Rouhaniyan-e Mobarez-e Tehran) closely scrutinized all candidates. In predictable fashion, the elec- tions resulted in a lopsided victory for Khomeini’s allies, and the Assembly of Experts began drafting the Islamic Constitution.43 The referendum was voted upon before any of the