Cell Cycle Checkpoints and Cancer
Checkpoint signalling pathways arrest the cell cycle when
genomic integrity is threatened, preventing the transmission
of genetic mutations into subsequent cell generations.
The restriction point also regulates cell cycle progression
based on environmental signals (growth factors, extracellular
matrix attachment, cell–cell contacts, etc.). Because
of these critical functions, mutations in key
checkpoint genes contribute to a variety of human diseases.
Notably, most malignant cancers possess mutations in one
or more checkpoint genes and are genetically uns
(Lengauer et al., 1998).
Genes that normally function to prevent malignancy,
such as p53 and Rb, are called tumour suppressor genes.
Mutations in p53 are found in at least 50% of all malignant
tumours. Loss of p53 function could contribute to the
development of cancer in several ways. (1) Cell cycle arrest
in response to DNA damage would be compromised,
presumably allowing a cell to accumulate additional
mutations required for malignant transformation. (2)
Apoptosis triggered by DNA damage and other events
APC
Cdk1
CycB
Sic1
Sic1
Cdh1 Cdh1
P
Swi5 Swi5
P
Degraded
securin
Cdc14 Cdc14
Spindle checkpoint
Mad2
Cdc20
Metaphase Anaphase Telophase
Cdk1
Bub2
Separase
Securin
Net1
Net1
P
Figure 4 Checkpoint pathways that block mitotic transitions as a consequence of spindle damage. APC, anaphase-promoting complex.
Checkpoints in the Cell Cycle
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF LIFE SCIENCES / & 2002 Macmillan Publishers Ltd, Nature Publishing Group / www.els.net 7
(such as loss of cell–cell contact) may be compromised.
(3) Telomere lengthening, which regulates cell lifespan,
may be regulated by p53. Likewise, loss of Rb function
would allow cells to escape the growth factor requirement
at the restriction point. Loss of function mutations in
ATM, Chk2 and other checkpoint proteins are also
associated with tumorigenesis. Gain-of-function mutations
in genes encoding proteins that advance the cell cycle
(e.g. CycD, CycE, Cdc25A) are common in cancerous cells,
presumably because they permit proliferating cells to
escape checkpoint controls.
Even though cancers are associated with increased
genetic instability, many chemotherapeutic agents function
by further disrupting checkpoint signalling, to the
point where malignant cells accumulate a lethal number of
mutations. Disruption of Chk1 is one target of cancer
chemotherapy that is having success in recent clinical trials.
Continued advancements in understanding cell cycle
checkpoint signals and their interaction with the cell cycle
engine will foster the development of better regimens for
treating cancer and other diseases of cell proliferation.