Born into a wealthy Chinese family, Lee Kuan Yew attended law school at Cambridge in Britain, and afterward he returned to Singapore to practice law. As an advocate of independence, Lee formed the People's Action Party (PAP), traveled to London, and eventually helped negotiate Singapore's independence from Great Britain. After Lee's party won the first election in 1959, Lee assumed the office of Prime Minister, a position he held until 1990, in part because the main opposition party boycotted election for years. Realizing that political autonomy depended on economic survival, Lee focused on building a strong, industrialized, export-oriented economy. Due to Singapore's lack of natural resources, Lee faced challenges in his quest to lead Singapore to economic greatness. He began by encouraging foreign investment and expecting the people of Singapore to embrace austerity. However, he also instituted programs to ensure that the working class benefitted. The nation's sacrifices yielded results; by 1980 the citizens of Singapore had the second highest per capita income in Asia, second only to Japan. Lee credited Singapore's success to the cultural traits of the Singaporean people: hard work, thriftiness, and strong family values, along with a solid education system and Singapore's open intellectual climate. Lee advocated for orderly society. He spoke out against the guns, drugs, and improper public behavior present in the United States, and he drew criticism for promoting corporal punishment for seemingly minor offenses, such as graffiti. Ultimately, Lee's vision came to fruition. Some would assert that the Singaporean people sacrificed democracy for economic prosperity by submitting to Lee's authoritarian leadership. However, Lee Kuan Yew's model has become an inspiration for nations throughout Asia and beyond, and after retirement, Lee has actively consulted with other Asian leaders concerning how to invigorate their own economies.